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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 21, 1931 


< i ; . 
é 2 : 
f gr = ey 
, 29D 260 
x rj 
XG ra 
Sflainsa t we 
BOARD OF EDITORS a 


C. WytTHE CooKE 


CHARLES DRECHSLER 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


Hues L. DrypEN 
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY 


BUREAU OF STANDARDS 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 
W. J. PETERS 


Haroutp Morrison 
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


G. W. STosE 


GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


E. A. GOLDMAN 
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


AGNES CHASE 


J. R. SWANTON 
BOTANICAL SOCIETY 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
Roger C, WELLS 


CHEMICAL SOCIETY 


PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY 
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY 
BY THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Mr. RoyaL AND GUILFORD AVES. 
BALTIMORE, MARYLAND 


ST 


Nee ae RVI WO LAOH: 


aH, oh HOLS 2) EL phase 
Pi ee RON MUN AO MERE Solin Meas yO Neal 
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5 = OTS OE eh See DER ied he A ae 
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de 


JANUARY 4, 1931 _ No. 1 


JOURN 


OF THE 


Oe oy ary ERAN 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


EpGar W. Woo.tarpD 


Epa@ar T. WHERRY 
GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY 


C, WrtHe Cooke 
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JOURNAL | 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 21 ‘January 4, 1931 No. 1 


GEOLOGY.—Recent German theories about structural geology.! 
Curt TEICHERT, University of Freiburg, Germany. (Communi- 
cated by CaRLE H. DANE.) 

The development of new ideas in Germany in the field of structural 
geology had already begun during the war when as a first impetus 
Wegener’s book Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Oz2ane appeared. 
This book has certainly caused more discussion among geologists of 
all countries than any other book in this line before or since. The 
fact that it has been translated into many languages and so far has ap- 
peared in four editions shows best the deep interest it has aroused 
everywhere. Although WEGENER’s ideas meet with the objection 
of the majority of the geologists they certainly have been a great stim- 
ulus to the consideration of many questions of structural geology. 
Since Wegener’s book has been translated into English and has been 
given much attention in English and American literature I shall not 
enter into any discussion of this theory. 

Several attempts have been made to modify Wegener’s ideas, most of 
them by geophysicists who generally have more widely adopted the 
hypothesis of shifting continents than geologists have done. Only 
one such attempt has been made on a bigger scale and that by a geolo- 
gist, RICHARD STAUB, now head professor of geology at the University 
of Zurich.2. For along time Staub has been a very diligent and success- 
ful student of stratigraphical and structural problems in the Alps. His 
Bau der Alpen, a comprehensive study of the structure of the Alps, 
published in 1924, has met with deep interest among European geolo- 


1 Received November 28, 1930. 

2 RicHARD Straus. Der Bewegungsmechanismus der Erde. (Berlin, 1928.) Although 
Staub is a Swiss geologist, his ideas may be considered in this place because his book 
is written in German and published in Germany. 


1 


2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 21, No. 1 


gists and many of his conclusions are rather generally accepted by other 
prominent students in this field. Thus itis entirely natural that Staub 
should start out from the Tertiary mountain ranges of the earth. He 
is one of the extreme ‘‘Nappisten,’’ one of the believers in that theory 
founded by ALBERT Herm that the Alps were built by a series of tre- 
mendous overthrusts. Staub himself has done much to strengthen this 
hypothesis as far as the structure of the Alps is concerned but on the 
other hand he is inclined to see all the Tertiary mountain ranges 
of the earth from the same viewpoint as he sees the Alps. He and 
many other European geologists like to speak of the Tertiary mountain 
ranges of the earth as ‘‘the Alpine mountain ranges.” Thisis arather 
dangerous terminology because it suggests not only a contemporaneous 
origin, but also a building plan and structure for all Tertiary mountain 
ranges similar to that of the Alps, which is apparently not the case. 

Staub studies the Tertiary mountain ranges of the earth, and as a 
result of these studies he finds that they all form a great uniform system. 
There is no such thing as the mediterranean system in contrast to a 
circum-Pacific system, no particular Eastern Asiatic or Australic ranges. 
All the high Tertiary ranges are a unit. The backbone of this great 
system is the eastwest trending range of the Alps which continues 
eastward into the Himalaya and which has also a westward prolonga- 
tion through the Atlantic ocean to Middle America. (Thus Staub 
disregards the obvious uniformity of the mid-Atlantic ridge.) In 
Middle America the main system branches into one great system of 
mountain ranges trending northward into Alaska and embracing the 
Pacific ocean on its northeastern side, and into another system trending 
southward along the west coast of South America and continuing into” 
Antarctica thus embracing the Pacific on its southeastern side. In the 
same way the eastern end of this central system branches into two 
minor systems of ranges, one following the northwestern border of the 
Pacific up to Kamchatka, the other going southward and continuing 
into the ranges of New Zealand. 

As a result one obtains a picture of a great uniform system dividing 
the main continental masses into two parts, the northern of which is 
called Laurasia and the Southern Gondwana, and branching out east 
and west into gigantic arms which embrace on all sides the big mass of 
the Pacific ocean. This is the way in which Staub sees connected the 
great ‘‘Alpine’”’ mountain ranges of the earth. 

How to explain this picture, is the next question Staub is going 
toanswer. ‘This is certainly not a structure due to a contraction of the 


JAN. 4, 1931 TEICHERT: NEW GERMAN THEORIES 3 


earth. The only explanation of this, as far as he can see, is a shifting of 
these two big northern and southern masses towards the equator. Itis 
in this respect that he modifies the original theory of Wegener. It is 
not the continents themselves that are shifting, but only Laurasia 
and Gondwana, each as a whole and more or less untouched in its inte- 
rior. For the Teritiary period he regards the southern mass as the ac- 
tiveone. All continents of the southern hemisphere (and this includes 
also India) are shifting northwards, driving back the northern conti- 
nents and building up at their front the big range of mountains of the 
mediterranean system. The explanation of the east and west branches 
of this system is not so very conclusive. Staub speaks of an additional 
westward drift which has partly caused the great mountains bordering 
the western shores of North and South America; but of course there is 


Fig. 1. Diagram and explanation of the alpine system of the earth. Black: The 
alpine orogen, with Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in the south. (After R. 
STAUB.) 


the resistance of the Pacific body which can cause the building up of 
mountains at its borders. For the bottom of the Pacific, Staub sup- 
ports the idea of Pickering that this is the place where the moon origi- 
nated; and, moreover, he favors Wegener’s idea that the bottom of the 
Pacific consists of heavier material which is generally supposed to 
underlie the lighter continents. 

What is true for the last mountain-building period must also be true 
for the preceding ones. One of the main objections made against 
Wegener’s theory is that he disregards the older orogenic periods, chiefly 
of the Paleozoic. Staub avoids this objection and he draws the follow- 
ing picture that during the history of the earth there were repeated 
movements of the continental masses of the northern and southern 
hemisphere (Laurasia and Gondwana) alternately towards the equator 


4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 1 


and the poles. He begins with Caledonian time which was a time of 
continental masses drifting towards the equator. This was followed 
by a drift towards the poles in post-Caledonian times and this again by 
a period of drifting equatorward in the late Paleozoic. Again shifted 
apart in Mesozoic times, the continents turn toward each other in the 
Tertiary and are now probably drifting apart again. 

The force which drives the continents towards the equator if they are 
situated near the poles is simply the centrifugal force. The collision 
of the continents near the equator line causes the building up of moun- 
tains in the first place and in consequence a displacement of magma 
below the mountain zones. Thus the magma is forced to flow from the 
equator on both sides towards the poles and takes the continents with 
it. This will explain the force which causes the drifting of the conti- 
nents towards the poles in the intermediate periods between the great 
mountain-building phases. 

Staub’s conception of the structure of the earth, thus based on the 
existence of the centrifugal force, west drift and the backflow of the magma 
is certainly fine and very simple, but I dare say it is perhaps too simple 
to be true. | 

Another geologist trained in the study of the Alps is LeopoLtp 
Koper, professor of geology at the university of Vienna. While 
Staub came to conclusions that were more or less in agreement with 
ideas of Wegener and were at any rate opposed to any ideas pertaining 
to a shrinkage of the earth as the mountain building force, Kober 
claims quite the contrary.’ Like Staub he is looking for the con- 
nection of the Tertiary mountain ranges, but he traces these con- 
nections in an entirely different way. He starts with an examination 
of the mountain ranges of the Tertiary type and comes to the con- 
clusion that fundamentally all known Tertiary mountain ranges are 
two-sided, that their overthrusts extend northward and southward 
or eastward and westward, whatever the direction of the mountain 
range. Moreover he finds out that all Tertiary mountain ranges 
have a more or less circular arrangement around areas which are not 
affected by any kind of Tertiary orogenetic movement. He calls this 
central area the kratogen and the surrounding mountains make the 
orogenic ring. Kratogen plus orogenic ring build an orogen or a 
geotectonic unit. There are eight of these geotectonic units distin- 
guishable on the surface of the earth: Eurasia, Africa, Indo-Australia, 


3 LEOPOLD Koper. Der Bau der Erde. (Berlin; 1st edition 1921, 2nd enlarged edi- 
tion 1929.) 


JAN. 4, 1931 TEICHERT: NEW GERMAN THEORIES 5 


North America, South America, North Pacific, South Pacific, and 
Antarctica. 

As an example of such an orogen I shall only give Kober’s picture of 
Africa. Continental Africa itself is the kratogen, largely unaffected 
by the Tertiary movements. The surrounding orogenic ring consists 
of the Atlas mountains in North Africa, the Appenines in Italy, some 
of the mountain ranges of the western and southwestern Balkan 
peninsula which continue into the ranges along the South coast of 
Asia Minor and into ranges in Persia. Here the trend of the mountains 
suddenly changes direction—as Kober assumes—and runs southward, 


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Fig.2. The African orogen. (After L. KoBEr.) 


thus striking out into the Indic. All the rest of the orogenic ring of 
Africa is submerged and consists partly of the eastern half of the mid- 
Atlantic ridge and of other submarine upliftings of the sea bottom 
around the African continent. This rather dangerous procedure of 
tracing structural connections under the sea is applied in a great deal of 
Kober’s constructions. 
What, however, is the meaning of the picture thus drawn? Kober is 
in favor of the idea of the contraction of the earth as the main force of 
mountain building. If the earth contracts, then a destruction and 
folding of the surface of the earth cannot take place in certain areas of 


6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 1 


resistance, these being stiffened by old intrusions or by former folding 
processes. The surface can only be folded between and around those 
areas, and this is the explanation of Kober’s picture. The kratogens 
are the areas of resistance which cannot be folded any more. As soon 
as the whole body of the earth contracts, these great blocks settle 
down a little, tending towards the center of the earth. Thus the space 
between them becomes smaller and the surface between, which is not 
yet stiff enough, can and must befolded. These are the orogenic rings 
which surround the kratogens. A similar process also took place in 
previous times of orogeny. Originally the kratogens were smaller 
and they grew to their present dimensions gradually in consequence of 
the gradual folding and stiffening of their borders. 

If we look at the real background of these ideas, we will find some 
remarkable similarities to ideas expressed by R. T. CHAMBERLIN and 
R. RuEDEMANN as to the distribution of the original ancient continents, 
although much of the developments assumed by Kober are highly 
hypothetical and sometimes too much generalized. Kober’s aim is 
largely one of physiographical explanation rather than that of histori- 
cal consideration of the development of given surfaceforms. His ques- 
tion is, how to explain the present physiographical configuration of the 
earth’s surface mainly in the light of the latest mountain-building 
movements. 

Another main defender of the theory of the contraction of the earth 
is Hans STILE, head professor of geology at the University of Gottin- 
gen. His book‘ is undoubtedly one of the most profound books ever 
written about structural questions. He has made a thorough exam- 
ination of all the existing literature of the world dealing with structural 
and particularly orogenetic questions. ‘Thus he came to the postula- 
tion of certain tectonic laws. | 

The first one and certainly that which he regards as the main result 
of his studies is the law of orogenetic contemporaneity, which means 
that orogenic processes are restricted to certain short periods or 
phases as Stille calls them, and that at those periods orogeny is liable 
to take place with more or less worldwide distribution. ‘The times 
between these orogenic phases are absolutely free from any movements 
of that kind. Only epeirogenesis takes place. ‘The boundary between 


4HANS STILLE. Grundfragen der vergleichenden Tektonik. (Berlin, 1924.) Since 
Prof. ScHucHERT has given a long review of this book (Am. Jour. Sci. 12: 277-292. 1926), 
Stille’s ideas will be considered here only briefly. The multitude of facts and ideas laid 
down in his book cannot be adequately dealt with in a few sentences anyhow. 


JAN. 4, 1931 TEICHERT: NEW GERMAN THEORIES 7 


epeirogenesis and orogenesis is drawn very sharply by Stille and accord- 
ing to him it is of much importance to distinguish between purely 
epeirogenetic and purely orogenetic times. 

Thus in studying the orogenic movements of the past he establishes 
between 30 and 40 of those orogenic phases which are distributed in 
about equal amounts in the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Tertiary. 

Among the orogenic movements he distinguishes two kinds: first the 
Alpine type, consisting of folds, overfolds, and overthrusts; second 
the Germanic type, consisting of fault-fold mountains and block 


ommme leitlinie der Alpiden. 
ecce Fore ger erktogenen u.meridjogenert 


Fig. 3. The tectonic structure of Europe. (After H. STILue.) 


mountains. Both are orogenic and both kinds of movements may 
occur at the same time in different regions during orogenic phases. 
Even Stille, however, cannot neglect the fact that there are sometimes 
orogenic movements during epeirogenic times, but he thinks they are 
of minor importance and calls them synepeirogenetic movements. On 
the other hand epeirogenic movements during orogenic times, also 
always of minor importance, are called synorogenic movements. 

The law of the contemporaneity of orogenic forms expresses the fact 
that all kinds of orogenic movements may occur at the same time and 


8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 1 


the law of the identity of orogenic force holds that the same force 
causes all kinds of orogeny. ‘This force is the contraction of the earth. 

Like Kober, Stille claims that certain areas are more fit for orogeny 
than others and especially he thinks that a stiffening by former orog- 
enies prevents a certain area from being folded again. As soon as a 
region has experienced the Alpine type of orogeny with folding and 
overthursts, it can only be affected by the Germanic type in later 
orogenies. ‘Thus only the border regions of these stiffened blocks can 
be folded, but not the interior, and the result is the steady growth of 
the stiffened blocks which cannot be folded any more. This concep- 
tion is very similar to Kober’s ideas of the growing kratogens, but is 
more founded on historical considerations than Kober’s were. 

How Stille came to the conclusion of the growing continental blocks 
may be illustrated by a picture of the structural conditions of Europe. 
There are the stiffened blocks of the Precambrian in the North as 
Archeurope (“Ureuropa’’), the Caldonian ranges folded in early 
paleozoic .times as Paleo-europe (‘‘Paleuropa’”’), Middle Europe, 
folded and stiffened in the late Paleozoic, as Meso-europe and finally 
the recently folded area around the Mediterranean sea as Neo-europe. 
Thus a steady growth of the European block during geologic times has 
taken place and there remains only one mobile area at the present time, 
the present Mediterranean sea. ‘This process of progressive folding of 
the borderlands is called by Stille the folding of the frames and plays 
a great role in his considerations. The question whether the orogenic 
zones are one-sided or two-sided is of minor importance to Stille. If 
the area affected by folding is very narrow then there would be a two- 
sided pressure. If this area is broad, each border will appear as a 
separate branch folded only to one side. 

I cannot refer to the many details of Stille’s book and I have to omit 
even some of the more important questions touched upon by him. I 
may say a few words more about his definitions. If we speak, for 
instance, of a geosyncline, we think immediately of an area of more or 
less intensive folding after the depesition of sediments there. This, 
according to Stille, is a misconception and he defines a geosyncline as 
any depressed area of large extent with sinking tendency thus accumu- 
lating large amounts of sediments, regardless of its later development. 
There are a number of geosynclines on the earth which never have been 
folded or affected by any type of Alpine orogeny. ‘This is an impor- 
tant and decided step towards the liberation of the word “‘geosyncline”’ 
from the burden of partly or wholly wrong conceptions which it has 
carried now for decades. 


JAN. 4, 1931 TEICHERT: NEW GERMAN THEORIES 9 


To summarize Stille’s opinions: tectonics is a function of the inten- 
sity of the tectonic force, of the capability of reaction of the material 
involved and in certain cases of particular local conditions. The 
only tectonic force is the contraction of the earth which does not take 
place steadily, but abruptly at certain phases; and every time the 
shrinkage of the earth causes worldwide orogenic movements. Thus 
for Stille the site of orogeny is the outer crust of the earth and the cause 
of orogeny are processes which pertain to the whole body of the earth. 
If subcrustal magmatic material is involved in orogenic processes, this 
can be only secondary. Stille neglects the importance of isostasy, as 
well as the magma; in fact, isostasy is hardly mentioned in his book. 

The antithesis of these ideas is the basis for the most recent theory 
promoted in Germany by Erich HAARMANN, geologist of the Prussian 
Geological Survey. It is remarkable that in a comparatively short 
period after the appearance of Wegener’s revolutionary book, such a 
book, not less revolutionary and yet on entirely different suppositions 


YY 


j 
7 


Yj Yj “Yj 
CUM. 


Wi) Y Yy 
Y Yy 
Fig. 4. The formation of a geotumor and free gliding. (After EH. Haarmann.) 


has appeared.® Like Wegener, Haarmann abandons most of the 
conceptions formerly regarded as sure and irrefutable and enters into 
a discussion of the fundamental principles of our science. For him, 
the main force which causes diastrophism at the surface is the move- 
ment of the subcrustal magma. ‘This flows from one place to another, 
causing uplifting of the crust where it is accumulating and depressions 
where it is streaming away. ‘Therefore the influence of such magmatic 
movements upon the behavior of the outer crust causes the appearance 
of widespread up-and-down movements. Haarmann calls an uplifted 
area a geotumor, a depressed area a geodepression, terms which 
correspond largely with ‘“‘geoanticline’’ and ‘‘geosyncline.’’ Thus 
Haarmann is going a step farther than even Stille, who confined him- 
self to a redefinition of these old expressions. But in fact a geotumor is 
not exactly identical with geoanticline and a geodepression not exactly 
like a geosyncline as we shall see. 


5 HRICH HAARMANN. Drie Oszillationstheorie. (Stuttgart, 1930.) 


10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 21, No. 1 


The building of geotumors and geodepressions is a steady process 
which is always taking place somewhere. Haarmann seeks the cause 
of this eternal up and down, or rather of the movements of the sub- 
crustal magma which causes this, in oscillations of the axis of rotation 
of the earth which give rise to changes of the balance between the 
masses of the earth and thus force the masses to change their position. 

One may however regard this as a doubtful explanation. It is not 
at all the main point with which the theory of Haarmann is concerned. 

Another old conception abandoned by Haarmann is the strong dis- 
tinction made so far between epeirogenesis and orogenesis as two differ- 
ent kinds of movements due to two entirely different kinds of causing 
forces. He abandons the terms “‘epeirogenesis” and “‘orogenesis”’ and 
calls any kind of tectonic movements on the earth tectogenesis. The 
type of movements which we so far have considered, the upward and - 
downward oscillation of the surface of the earth constitute primary 
tectogenesis because these movements are the primary features with- 
out which all kinds of tectonic facts cannot be understood. Primary 
tectogenesis in the conception of Haarmann is only partly identical 
with epeirogenesis in the older sense. 

The building of folded and overthrust mountain structures is the 
consequence of primary tectogenesis. All we know as folds, overfolds, 
overthrusts, faulting and similar processes is the result of gliding. No 
gliding can take place without an oblique base and therefore without 
preceding uplift, without primary tectogenesis. All these movements 
which eventually result in the building of faulted, folded, overthrust 
ranges constitute consequently secondary tectogenesis, which is in every 
case a gliding phenomenon and dependent upon the precedence of 
primary tectogenesis. Thus for the first time the attempt is made to 
connect causally the side-by-side existence of epeirogenetic and oro- 
genetic or rather vertical and horizontal movements. 

This theory explains also the existence of tension areas on the back 
side of overthrust ranges. Moreover the appearance of tension has to 
be expected behind a sedimentary complex gliding downward from the 
top of an uplifted dome. In this way fissures, magmatic intrusions and 
voleanic activity on the opposite side of the direction of the movement 
are satisfactorily explained. Also the rather common appearance of an 
arrangement of the mountain ranges in arcs is to be understood in the 
light of this theory. 

In accordance with the different kinds of folding structures, Haar- 
mann distinguishes several kinds of gliding. The first is free gliding 
(‘‘Freigleitung’’) which takes place in not yet entirely filled geodepres- 


JAN. 4, 1931 TRICHERT: NEW GERMAN THEORIES 11 


sions where the gliding is not hindered by any obstacles. This kind of 
gliding has taken place in all the late-Tertiary mountain ranges 
and has caused folds, overfolds, overthrusts and the arclike outline of 
many of the ranges. 

Secondly, there is full-trough gliding (‘‘Volltroggleitung’’) which 
takes place in nearly filled geodepressions where not the whole sequence 
of sediments is able to glide, but only the upper strata, whereas com- 
pression with irregular movements and steep folds and faults appear 
in the deeper zones. Full-trough gliding may take place before free 
gliding and may thus add considerably to the complication of 
structures. 

The third kind of gliding is fault gliding (‘‘Bruchgleitung’’) which 
depends upon the existence of a competent surface of the sedimentary 
series and an incompetent gliding basis at the bottom. The results 
are downward movements of larger coherent blocks and dislocation 
along usually steep faults. 

The fourth kind depends upon some special conditions and is called 
squeeze gliding (‘‘Expressionsgleitung’’). It, applies to the only kind 
of secondary tectogenesis which does not take place as a downward but 
as an upward movement. Mobile members of the sedimentary series 
are squeezed and pressed up by the pressure of less plastic sediments. 
We see this process in deposits of clay, salt, coal, diatomite, ore and 
also sometimes in magmatic intrusions. 

All these gliding processes take place in deeper zones, at least below 
sea level. The present height of the mountains is the result of later 
uplifting. Thus the former areas of geodepression have mostly as- 
sumed to-day the appearance of geotumors; on the other hand, the old 
geotumors in back of the present mountain ranges have to-day largely 
subsided and have become geodepressions and a new cycle of tectoge- 
netic activity is going on. 

Surface features of the moon seem to support Haarmann’s ideas, the 
well known craters here being an equivalent to the geodepression of the 
earth. 

Contrary to the view of Pickering and Wegener that the moon origi- 
nated where now the Pacific ocean lies, Haarmann believes that we 
have to look for the original place of the moon rather where is now the 
greatest accumulation of sial material—in Asia. At the time when the 
moon was detached from the earth, the then already existing conti- 
nental cores still had the ability to float and shift over the magmatic 
surface and filled up the hole left by the detachment of the moon’s 
body. Afterwards, shifting of the continents could no longer take 


12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 21, No. 1 


place because it was prevented by the gradual cooling of the surface. 

Some severe objections as to the possibility of application of Haar- 
mann’s ideas to some American problems have already recently been 
mentioned by C. R. LONGWELL‘ in a short review of Haarmann’s book. 
Objections certainly will also come from the side of European geolo- 
gists; but nevertheless nobody can and will doubt that Haarmann’s 
book on diastrophism must be regarded as one of the most stimulating 
ones of the present time. 

It may be noted that Haarmann, to his own advantage, could have 
made more use of EK. O. Utricn’s Revision of the Paleozoic systems. 
Ulrich was the first one to consider oscillatory movements as the pri- 
mary feature of diastrophism, although he was more concerned with 
diastrophism as a factor in paleogeography. ‘This side of the problem 
has not been given so much attention in Haarmann’s book. The study 
of oscillatory movements in their combined effects on tectonics and 
paleogeography might prove one of the most promising efforts of future 


geology. 


BOTANY.—A new Limonium from Haiti. 8S. F. BLAKE, Bureau of 
Plant Industry. 

One of the most interesting plants collected by Mr. and Mrs. nae 
C. Lronarp in their exploration of northwestern Haiti in 1928-29 is a 
species of sea-lavender (Limonium) which was found growing plenti- 
fully on the coral rocks and cliffs east of Bord du Mer, in the vicinity 
of Jean Rabel. No species of the genus is reported in Urban’s Flora 
Domingensis (1920-21), and only two species have hitherto been found 
in the Bermudan-Bahaman-Antillean region. These are Limonium 
lefroyr (Hemsl.) Britton, treated by Britton in the Flora of Bermuda as 
identical with L. carolinianum (Walt.) Britton but in the writer’s 
opinion a distinct species endemic in Bermuda,? and L. bahamense 
(Griseb.) Britton, a Bahaman endemic remote from any other de- 
scribed American species and most closely related to a group of the 
genus found in the Mediterranean region and southern Africa.? The 
plant from Haiti is closely related to L. bahamense and very similar to 
it in general appearance, but is well distinguished by its different bracts 

6 Am. Jour. Sci. 20: 219-220. 19380. 

1 Received November 22, 1930. 

2See Blake, Rhodora 18: 54. 1916. 

3 Grisebach briefly compared his species with ‘‘Statice caspia Willd.,’’ which it closely 
resembles in habit. If Boissier’s series Steirocladae and Hyalolepideae are to be distin- 


guished, however, both L. bahamense and L. haitiense are to be referred to the series 
Steirocladae, not to the Hyalolepideae, to which ‘‘Statice caspia’’ belongs. 


JAN. 4, 1931 BLAKE: NEW HAITIAN LIMONIUM 13 


and calyx. In L. bahamense the third bract of the spikelet is glabrous; 
the calyx is glabrous at the oblique base and short-pilose on two of the 
ribs from base for about half their length, and sometimes similarly 
pilose on one or two other ribs for a short space near their middle; and 
the upper half of the ribs is glabrous. In the Haitian plant the third 
bract is rather densely short-pilose above; the calyx is barbate-pilose all 
around at base, pilose with decidedly longer hairs (than in L. baha- 
mense) on two of the principal ribs for about half their length and on 
the three other ribs near the middle, and similarly pilose to a greater or 
less extent on the very obscure intermediate ribs; and all five principal 
ribs are shortly pilosulous above the middle, sometimes nearly to the 
tip. The new plant may be called 


Limonium haitiense Blake, sp. nov. 


Inmonio bahamensi affine, differt bractea tertia sursum pilosula, calycis 
basi piloso-barbati costis 2 e basi ad medium sublonge pilosis, 3 prope medium 
pilosis, omnibus supra medium saepe paene ad apicem breviter pilosulis. 

Perennial, glabrous but obscurely scurfy; root rather short, vertical, with 
horizontal branches; stems very numerous and entangled, about 20 cm. long, 
leafy only below, divergently alternate-branched, articulate, angled, densely 
pustulate, the lower branches sterile, tipped with bracts like those of stem, 
only the uppermost branches floriferous; leaves spatulate, 2-5 cm. long in- 
cluding petiole (this often twice as long as blade), 3-8 mm. wide, obtuse or 
acute, cuspidate, cuneate at base, fleshy, somewhat lepidote-scurfy, 1-nerved; 
bracts of stem deltoid, acute, about 1.5 mm. long, with thick-herbaceous body 
and rather narrow scarious margin, glabrous; spikes numerous, corymbosely 
panicled, recurving, about 8-12 mm. long, the spikelets 3-4-flowered, densely 
and distichously imbricate; outermost bract suborbicular-ovate, rounded, 
glabrous, 2—2.5 mm. long, with subherbaceous body and rather broad scarious 
margin, the margin about half as broad as the width of the body; secondary 
bract hyaline, broadly and shallowly emarginate, about 1.7 mm. long; tertiary 
bract obliquely obovate in side view (suborbicular when flattened), rounded, 
rather densely spreading-pilosulous on upper half, 4.5 mm. long, with thick- 
herbaceous body and broad scarious margin (about 1 mm. wide); bracteoles 
elliptic-oblong, obtuse, glabrous, about 3 mm. long, hyaline throughout, 
the brownish costa evident only toward base or to above the middle; pedicels 
glabrous, 0.7 mm. long or less; calyx funnelform, 4-4.2 mm. long, whitish 
or lavender-tinged below, pilose-barbate all around at the oblique base, pilose 
from base to middle on 2 principal ribs, pilose near middle on the remaining 
principal ribs, pilose on one of the very indistinct intermediate ribs throughout 
its length and on the remainder at their tips, and very shortly pilosulous on 
the 5 principal ribs from middle often nearly to apex; calyx lobes deltoid, 
obtuse, about 0.5 mm. long, the intermediate teeth obsolete; petals apparently 
lavender. | 

Hait1: Common on coral rocks, shore cliffs east of Bord du Mer, vicinity of 
Jean Rabel, Dept. Nord-Ouest, 6 March 1929, HE. C. & G. M. Leonard 
13786 (type no. 1,452,380, U.S. Nat. Herb.) ; rocky cliffs east of Bord du Mer, 
5 Feb. 1929, Leonard & Leonard 12881; dry coral rock, sea bluff east of Bord 
du Mer, 5 Feb. 1929, Leonard & Leonard 12889. 


14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 21, No. 1 


BOTANY.—Fie new grasses from Colombia Jason R. SWALLEN, 
Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated by A. S. Hitcu- 
COCK.) 

Among the grasses collected by E. P. Kiniie and ALBERT C. SmirH 
in Colombia in 1926-27, four species are described as new. The fifth 
was collected by W. A. ARcHER in June, 1930, in Department 
Antioquia. 


Chusquea tuberculosa Swallen, sp. nov. 


Culmi dense tuberculosi, 6 mm. crassi, nodis pubescentibus vel villosis; 
vaginae papillosae; ligula minuta; laminae culmorum basi cordatae, 9-10 cm. 
longae, 3 cm. latae, ramorum fasciculatae minores, ovatae vel lanceolato- 
ovatae, glabrae, 2-3 cm. longae, 4-10 mm. latae, marginibus scabris; paniculae 
patentes, 7-10 cm. longae, 5-6 cm. latae; ramis divergentibus, dense pub- 
escentibus; spiculae appressae, 6-7 mm. longae; glumae obsoletae vel minutae; 
lemmata sterilia duo, subaequalia, 5 mm. longa; lemma fertile acutum, ie 
nervium, 6 mm. longum. 

Culms woody and vine-like, solid, very densely and prominently tubercu- 
late, more or less pubescent or villous at the nodes, as much as 6 mm. thick, 
bearing fascicles of sterile or flowering branches at the nodes, 5-30 cm. long; 
sheaths papillose-hispid to nearly smooth; ligule minute; blades of the main 
culm cordate-clasping, 9-10 cm. long, 3 cm. wide, those of the fascicled 
branches reduced, ovate or ovate-lanceolate, scarcely cordate, 2-8 cm. long, 
4-10 mm. wide, all the blades smooth on both surfaces, scabrous on the mar- 
gins; panicles open, 7-10 em. long, 5-6 cm. wide, the branches stiffly spreading, 
the axis and branches densely soft-pilose; spikelets short pediceled, appressed, 
6-7 mm. long; glumes obsolete; sterile lemmas two, subequal, 3- -nerved, 5 
mi. long; fertile lemma acute, 7-nerved, 6 mm. long. 

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,353,497, collected on the edge 
of woods between California and Vetas, alt. 2500 m., Department Santander, 
Colombia, January 15-22, 1927, by E. P. Kiturp and ALBrrt C. Smirx (no. 
18005). 


Known only from the type collection. 
The prominently tuberculate culms are characteristic. 


Neurolepsis mollis Swallen, sp. nov. 


Culmi robusti, erecti, 1.5-4.5 m. alti; vaginae glabrae, in ore fimbriatae; 
ligula 1-2 cm. longa; laminae planae, 20-75 cm. longae, 2—4 cm. latae, petio- 
latae; panicula angusta, stricta, 0.45-1.5 m. longa, ramis pubescentibus, an- 
guste ascendentibus, superioribus approximatis, inferioribus remotis; spiculae 
valde immaturae, 2 mm. longae, 3-florae, flosculis duobus inferioribus imper- 
fectis; glumae subaequales, obtusae, quam spicula duplo breviores; lemmata 
firma, acuta vel cuspidata, scaberula. 

Culms robust, erect from short knotty rhizomes, 1.5-4.5 m. tall; sheaths 
smooth, glabrous, at least the lower ones long-fimbriate at the mouth; blades 
flat, narrowed toward both ends, 20-75 em. long, 2—4 cm. wide, sparsely pilose 
above, smooth below, scabrous on the margins, the bases of at least the lower 


1 Received October 5, 1930. 


JAN. 4, 1931 SWALLEN: NEW COLOMBIAN GRASSES 15 


ones indurate and petiole-like, much narrower than the mouth of the 
sheath; ligule membranaceous, brownish, more or less lacerate above, 1-2 cm. 
long; panicles narrow, strict, 0.45 to more than 1.5 m. long, the spikelike 
branches appressed or narrowly ascending, the upper ones short and approxi- 
mate, the lower distant, as much as 20 cm. long, these bearing rather distant 
fascicles of appressed branchlets, both the main axis and the branches densely 
and softly pubescent; spikelets (all immature) about 2 mm. long, three-flow- 
ered, the upper floret fertile, the lower two florets sterile; first and second 
glumes subequal, obtuse, more or less apiculate, about half as long as the 
spikelet; lemmas firm in texture, acute or minutely cuspidate, scaberulous. 

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,351,648, collected in woods in 
the mountains east of Las Vegas, Department of Santander, Colombia, alt. 
3000-3300 m., December 20-21, 1926, by E. P. Kinurp and ALBERT C. SMITH 
(no. 15830). 


The only other specimen of this species seen is K1iiip and Smits no. 20699, 
collected at Paramo del Hatico, alt. 2900 m., Department Norte de Santander, 
Colombia. As both specimens are immature the floral measurements of 
mature plants may be somewhat larger than those given. The soft dense 
pubescence on the axis and branches of the panicle is characteristic. 


Muhlenbergia erectifolia Swallen, sp. nov. 


Perennis caespitosa; culmi erecti, glabri, 15-20 cm. alti; folia basi aggre- 
gata; vaginae glabrae vel scaberulae; ligula acuta, 3-5 mm. longa; laminae 
erectae, rigidae, teretes, scabrae, pungentes, 5-10 cm. longae, basi quam 
vaginae angustiores; panicula angusta, 5-6 em. longa, vix laminis longior; 
spiculae appressae, pedicellis crassis, 1-4 mm. longis; glumae aequales, trun- 
catae, 1-1.3 mm. longae; lemma 2.5 mm. longum, infra pubescens supra 
scabrum; arista erecta, crassa, scabra, 3-5 mm. longa. 

Densely tufted perennial; culms erect, 15-20 cm. tall, glabrous; leaves 
mostly crowded toward the base; sheaths smooth or somewhat scabrous; 
ligule membranceous, acute, 3-5 mm. long; blades erect, rigid, terete, scabrous, 
pungently pointed, narrower than the sheaths at the base, 5-10 cm. long; 
panicles narrow, erect, scarcely exceeding the blades, 5-6 cm. long, rather few- 
flowered, the branches appressed; spikelets appressed to the branches, the 
pedicels comparatively stout, 1-4 mm. long; glumes equal, 1-1.3 mm. long, 
truncate, more or less erose, tinged with bronze and purple; lemma 2.5 mm. 
long, somewhat pubescent below, scabrous toward the summit, tapering into 
a stout erect scabrous awn 3-5 mm. long. 

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium no. 1,353,062, collected on Paramo 
de Santurbin, near Vetas, alt. 3,950-4,160 m., Department Santander, 
Colombia, January 17, 1927, by E. P. Kiture and ALBrErt C. SMITH (no. 
17470). 


Known only from the type collection. 

The short terete, pungent blades are unlike those of any other species of this 
genus. , 
Panicum longiculme Swallen, sp. nov. 


Culmi graciles, erecti vel decumbentes, ad nodos inferiores radicantes, 125 
em. longi, pilosi vel papilloso-pilosi, nodis barbatis; vaginae papilloso-pilosae; 


16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 1 


ligula 1-2 mm. longa; laminae 2—5.5 cm. longae, 3-5 mm. latae, pubescentes, 
marginibus scabris; panicula 5 cm. longa, 4.5 cm. lata, ramis patentibus, 
axillis villosis; spiculae 2.4-2.6 mm. longae, pilosae; gluma prima acuta, 1—1.2 
mm. longa. 

Culms slender, wiry, erect or long-decumbent at the base and rooting at 
the lower nodes, as much as 125 cm. long, pilose or papillose-pilose, the nodes 
mostly densely retrorsely bearded; sheaths much shorter than the internodes, 
papillose-pilose; ligule hairy, 1-2 mm. long; blades flat 2-5.5 em. long, 3-5 
mm. wide with a white, scabrous, cartilaginous margin, softly pubescent on 
both surfaces; panicles few flowered, 5 cm. long, nearly as broad as long, the 
branches mostly widely spreading, the axis pilose; spikelets 2.4—2.6 mm. long, 
sparsely pubescent; first glume acute, 1—1.2 mm. long, |-nerved; fruit pointed, 
equaling the second glume and sterile lemma. 

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,444,529, collected in moun- 
tains above Bello, Quebrada del Ato, Department Antioquia, Colombia, 
June 17, 1930, by W. A. ARcHER (no. 160). 


This species is allied to P. venezuelae Hack., but differs in having spikelets 
evenly distributed in the panicle, and fruit as long as the second glume and 
sterile lemma. ; 


Ichnanthus angustifolius Swallen, sp. nov. 


Probabiliter perennis; culmi graciles, glabri vel pubescentes, basi decum- 
bentes radicantes, 110 cm. longi, internodis inferioribus brevibus, superioribus 
elongatis; vaginae pilosae vel papilloso-pilosae internodos aequantes vel 
2-3-plo breviores; ligula obsoleta; laminae sublineares, acuminatae, pilosae, 
basi subcordatae, 7-9 cm. longae, 3-5 mm. latae; panicula longe exserta, 8 cm. 
longa, ramis ascendentibus vel patentibus, pilosis; spiculae 3.5 mm. longae, 
pilosae, appressae, solitariae vel binae; gluma prima acuta vel acuminata 
1.8-3.5 mm. longa; gluma secunda acuta, lemma sterile aequans; lemma sterile 
obtusum; lemma fertile 2.4 mm. longum, basi appendicibus obsoletis. 

Probably perennial; culms slender, straggling, long-decumbent at the base 
and with stilt roots at some of the nodes, more than 110 cm. long, glabrous, 
or sparsely pubescent, the lower internodes short, the upper ones elongate; 
lower sheaths as long as the internodes, the upper ones 1/3-1/2 as long as the 
internodes, pilose or papillose-pilose, especially on the margin and the collar; 
ligule nearly obsolete; blades linear or linear-lanceolate, acuminate, subcordate 
7-9 cm. long, 3-5 mm. wide, pilose on both surfaces; panicle long-exserted, 
8 cm. long, the axis and the ascending or spreading branches mostly short- 
pilose; spikelets 3.5 mm. long, more or less pilose or papillose-pilose, solitary 
or in pairs, appressed to the branches, the pedicel of the lower one of a pair 
less than 1 mm., that of the upper about 3 mm. long; first glume 3-nerved, 
acute or acuminate, from half as long to as long as the spikelet; second glume 
and sterile lemma equal, 5-nerved, the glume acute, the sterile lemma obtusish; 
fertile lemma 2.4 mm. long, the wings reduced to scars. 

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,351,267, collected in woods, 
on the northern slope of Mesa de los Santos, alt. 1000-1500 m., Department 
Santander, Colombia, Dec. 11-15, 1926, by E. P. Kizure and ALBERT C. 
SMITH (no. 15385). 


Known only from the type collection. | 
The long-decumbent culms with stilt roots and narrow blades are typical. 


part 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 21 JANUARY 19, 1931 No. 2 


STATISTICS.—Some elementary properties of moments-of-frequency 
distributions. A. J. Lorxa, New|York, N. Y. 


In the course of a special investigation it became necessary to 
develop certain simple theorems regarding the moments of frequency 
distribution. It may be found convenient for others, as it was for 
the writer, to have a record of these theorems and their proof collected 
together in one place. Although some of them may seem evident 
almost at sight, one is, nevertheless, better satisfied when a definite 
proof is at hand. 

1. Definition.—Given any frequency distribution z = f(x), we may 
form the function x"z = x" f(x) and regard this as a new distribution 
F(x). We may, further, determine the mean of this new distribution 


ates i F(x)dx : i x2+1 f(x)dx oe 9 
‘ F (x)dx i‘ x2 {(x)dx Ra 


2. Theorem.—The mean x, defined as above moves in the direction 
of increasing x as n increases, provided that f(x) > o fora < x <b. 
That is, under this condition, xX, > Xp_1 

Proof.—By definition 


Rigi = ty x? F(x)dx (2) 


R. = { X mace (3) 


'‘ Received November 12, 1930. 
17 


18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 2 


= ie F(x)dx (4) 
Ri = [x P@dx ("y PQday (5) 
= ie i xy F(x) F(y)dydx (6) 


Raber 


HAL [rey Fo aydx + ("[ Fox F@ayaxt (7 


2 (° (ce + ¥9 FW Fo ayds 8) 


By comparison of equations (6) and (8) it is seen that for every term 
xy F(x) F(y)dydx in R?, there is a corresponding term 


> (+ y?) Ft) FG) dydx in Re Re 


Now x and y being both real, we have 


j@ — 9) 50 (9) 
x? —-2xy +y>0 (10) 
BOG ae) Ss oy (11) 


the equal sign applying only in the special case that x = y. Hvery 
term in (8) being positive and greater than or at least equal to the 
corresponding term in (6), it follows at once that 


Re keen (12) 


the equality sign being here excluded, since in the double integral, 
in general, x ¥ y. 
The result (12) may also be written 
Raced J 


2 
Ws Rae 


he@siXn gy = Xa (13) 


which proves the theorem. 
3. Theorem.—The mean x, of the distribution x" f(x) approaches the 
value b as n increases, if f(x) = O for all values of x greater than b. 
Proof.—From the theorem (2) it is clear that x, must either increase 
indefinitely as n increases, or else must tend continually to an upper 
limit. 


JAN. 19, 1931 LOTKA: MOMENTS OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS 19 


We may split up the expression for x, 


b 
ie x+1 f(x)dx i x"+1 f(x)dx 
pee eal eae Se 4) 
i x" f(x)dx ii x" f(x)dx + i x2 {(x)dx 
a a p 
2) ee es (15) 


Now it is clear that for any assigned value of p < b, we can always, 
by choosing n large enough, make the ratios I.,/I,» and Jap»/Jp» less 
than any assigned positive valuee. Hence, in the limit, for sufficiently 
large n, we have : 


b 
| x2+1 f(x)dx 
Xx, = Ipp BE ZINE Bs PIR (16) 


b 
ie ii mt fds 
p 


where p may be made (less than but) as nearly equal to b as we please. 
But in the limit, as p approaches b, (16) reduces simply to 


b= +1 f(b)dx 
pm ptf) dx oe 
which proves the theorem. 

4. Theorem.—The median between the limits x = a and x = bof . 
the distribution F(x) = x" f(x) moves in the direction of increasing 
X as N increases. 

Proof.—The median é of F(x) is defined by the relation 


£ b 
\ F(x)dx = i F(x)dx (18) 


It follows at once that 


: b 
ii x F(x)dx < \ x F(x)dx (19) 


since each term on the right of the inequality (19) is obtained from the 
corresponding term in the right hand member of the equation (18) by 
multiplication with a value of x > &, while each term on the left is 


20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 2 


similarly obtained [from the corresponding term in the left hand 
member of the equation (18) by multiplication with a value of x < ¢. 
b 


In order, therefore, to divide the integral _ XE(x)dx into equal parts, 


we must add something to the first inicenal of the inequality (19), 
and deduct something from the second. But this means that in the 
defining equation for the median of x F(x) 


{x F(x)dx = (x F(x)dx 


we must haven > é, that is, the median of x F(x) lies “to the right of”’ 
that of F(x). This proves the theorem. 

5. Theorem.—The mode of the distribution F(x) = x" f(x), where x 
and f(x) both assume only positive values, moves in the direction of 
increasing X as N increases. 

Proof.—The mode of F(x) is defined by 


dF(x) _ 
be 


while that of x F(x) is defined by 


~ GF o&) ss 
eee F(x) = 0 
di i F(x) 
(ae x 


Now according to hypothesis, F(x) and x are both positive. Hence 
the mode of x F(x) falls at a point at which the curve for F(x) has a 
downward slope, that is, to the right of its mode. ‘This proves the 
theorem, for unimodal frequency curves lying entirely in the plus x field. 

If the curve has two or more modes, we can divide it into sections 
having only one mode and then apply to each section the argument set 
forth above. 

Summary.—lf f(x) is a frequency distribution and if both x and f(x) 
assume only positive values, then the mean, median and mode of 
x" f(x) all move in the direction of increasing x as n increases. 


JAN. 19, 1931 SPUNAR: FERMAT’S LAST THEOREM 21 


MATHEMATICS.—On Fermat's Last Theorem, III’. Vau. Mar. 
SPuNAR, Chicago, Ill. (Communicated by Epagar W. WooLaARD.) 
In the attempt to show that 


Dy tee SS ce leh che (1) 


n being any positive integer, cannot be solved in integers all different 
from zero if n > 2, it is sufficient to consider the case in which 2g, y, z are 
relatively prime and n is an odd prime } = 3.2. One method of attack 
that has been employed is to exclude certain values for either by 
more or less general criteria or by direct computation; and some results 
obtained by this method have been presented in the two preceding 
papers? by the present writer. 

It is the object of the present paper to extend the results of Dickson‘ 
and of Beeger®, who have, respectively, proved Fermat’s Last Theorem 
forn < 7000 andn < 14,000. It has been established that any value 
of \ for which 


is satisfied by integers not divisible by \, must satisfy 
eas ek MGUY Nie hehe ue, (3) 


ror) — 2°; 37: 58: 11 and 17°; and also 7, 13, and 19 if X = 5 (mod 6), 
l.e.,\ = 64 — 1.1° Thus, (2) is impossible in integers prime to d for all 
prime values of \ that do not satisfy (3) for all the preceding values 
ofr. It may be noted that (3) will likewise be satisfied by the product 
of these numbers, each raised to any power, Viz., 


90.30.5°-74- 115-13! -17 9-194, 


in which a, 6, c,...,2 may each be any positive integer or zero unless 
\ = 6k + 1 in which case we must taked =f =h=0. The follow- 
ing generalization of these results appears to be new: 


1 Received June 30, 1930. 

2 CARMICHAEL, Theory of Numbers, p.91. New York, 1914. 
’ This JOURNAL, 18: 389-395. 1928;19: 395-401. 1929. 

4 Quar. Jour. Math. 40: 27-45. 1908. 

5 Mess. Math. (2), 55: 17-26. 1925. 

§ WizeFeERIcH, Crelles Jour. fiir Math., 136: 293-302. 1909. 
7 MrrRIMANOFF, Crelles Jour. fiir Math., 139: 309-324. 1911. 
8 VANDIVER, Crelles Jour. fiir Math., 144: 314-318. 1914. 

° FROBENIUS, Sitz. Berl., 1914, pp. 653-681. 

10 FROBENIUS, loc. cit. 


22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 2 


Theorem.—If, in M = m > + N, 2 be an odd prime, m any 
integer prime to A, and M and WN both satisfy (3), then this value for \ 
is excluded from (2).. 

The proof requires the following Lemma: If r is an integer, not zero, 
prime to any odd prime 2 2 8, and satisfies (8), then obviously 
[md — (md + 1)]*-! = 1 (mod 22), whence, upon expanding by the bi- 
nomial theorem, we find that — (A — 1) md (mA + r)*-? + (md41r)*"1 = 
1 (mod 22); consequently, it is impossible that 


(mn £7)" = 1 Gnod 45.2 ae (4) 


Thus, no value of \ which satisfies (4) can satisfy (8), nor, therefore, 
(2). 


Now, if we put 
meh = VME UNG oo se (5) 


where , m, M, N, are all prime to each other, and N is any number r 
that satisfies (3), then since mA = (mA +r) + r,wehaveM = md +7; 
and if also 


d 


Morea (mod: \2) 7) 0 (6) 
1.e., 
Gah oe = A Gmod Ina 


then by the Lemma, \ cannot satisfy (3) nor (2). That is, if m\ can 
be expressed as the sum or difference of two numbers both of which 
satisfy (8), then Fermat’s Theorem is true for this value of \.  E. g,, 
taking m = 1 for convenience, we have 7013 = 7-10? + 138, whence 
Fermat's Theorem holds for } = 7013; similarly 7019 = 7-108 + 19, 
7027 = 52-172 — 2-32-11, and so on. The writer is now engaged in 
constructing tables of such results which will prove Fermat’s Theorem 
for \ < 50,000. The result 


2rA+1 
Go. < Dy <2 


established in the first paper™ shows that for \ = 50,021, the solutions, 
if any exist, must be such that 
10 <7 < DO) KB 


1! This JOURNAL, 18: 395. 1928. 


JAN. 19, 1931 FISHER: NEW BEETLE FROM COSTA RICA 23 


The Theorem of the present paper likewise holds form = m’ \*, if m’ 
be prime to d, and M and WN are both perfect \*-th powers. The more 
general identity + md = (rmd +n) ¥[(r — 1) mA +n] may also 
be used; e.g., \ = 8311 = 27-11-17 — 5& = 23,936-15,625 is in the 
form \ = (8A — p) — (24 — p) ordA = (24 + n) — (A +n) where 
foie — op — 1000, n — 7al4. 

The writer has obtained a proof, to be published shortly, that (2) 
has no solution in integers at allif \ = 6k — 1 and xyz =4 0 (moda) 


ENTOMOLOGY .—A new longhorn beetle from Costa Rica (Coleoptera: 
Cerambycidae).1 W.S8. FisHer, Bureau of Entomology, United 
States Department of Agriculture. (Communicated by Haroip 
MorRISON.) 


Cosmotoma fasciata, new species 


Elongate, and moderately robust; head and antennae reddish-brown, the 
latter becoming darker toward apices; pronotum reddish-brown anteriorly, 
becoming dark-brown on basal half; scutellum and elytra black, the latter 
with a broad, transverse, reddish-brown fascia in front of middle, which is more 
or less interrupted at the sutural margins, and the surface ornamented with 
white pubescent markings; beneath brownish-black, with the legs dark 
reddish-brown. 

Head with the front quadrate, feebly convex, slightly concave between the 
antennal tubercles, which are slightly elevated, the surface densely, finely 
punctate, and sparsely clothed with long, recumbent, yellow hairs; eyes rather 
small, very deeply emarginate, with the upper lobes very small and narrow; 
antenna considerably longer than body, the fourth joint armed on the upper 
surface with a thick tuft of long, black hairs, the second, third, and fifth joints 
with thin pencils of hairs at their tips, and clothed with a few long hairs 
similar to the other joints, first joint slightly expanded toward apex, about 
three-fourths as long as the third joint, which is slightly shorter than the 
fourth, the following joints becoming gradually shorter toward tip of antenna. 

Pronotum slightly wider than long, strongly constricted along base and 
anterior margin, the sides with a slight conical protuberance near middle; 
disk with a large obtuse tubercle on each side of middle; surface densely, 
obsoletely punctate, a few large, coarse punctures in the transverse apical and 
basal constrictions, rather densely clothed with long, recumbent, yellow pub- 
escence. Scutellum elongate, finely, densely punctate, and rather densely 
clothed along margins with recumbent, white pubescence. 

Elytra nearly three times as long as pronotum, slightly wider than it at 
base; humeral angles broadly rounded and feebly elevated; sides nearly paral- 
lel to apical fourth, then arcuately narrowed to the apices, which are obliquely 
truncate internally; surface densely, obsoletely punctate, with a few scattered 
coarse punctures intermixed, rather densely clothed with short, black pub- 
escence, which has a pinkish tinge in certain lights, with numerous long, erect, 
stiff, black hairs, and each elytron ornamented with white pubescent markings 


1 Received November 21, 1930. 


24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 2 


as follows: three narrow, transversely oblique fasciae on the transverse red- 
dish-brown area in front of middle, the fasciae more or less connected toward 
the sutural margin, and a narrow transverse fascia near apex, and armed with 
a median basal crest, which is clothed with long, black hairs. 

Body beneath densely, obsoletely punctate, and rather densely clothed with 
short, recumbent, silvery-white pubescence; last abdominal segment rather 
coarsely punctate toward apex, and clothed with long, semierect hairs. 

Length, 5-7.5 mm.; width, 2-3.2 mm. 

Type locality — Hamburg farm, Costa Rica. 

Type and paratype.—Cat No. 43174, United States National Museum. 

Paratypes.—Collection Ferd. Nevermann. 

Described from four examples (one type), all of which were collected at 
the type locality, April 2, 1925, by Ferd. Nevermann. 


This species is very closely allied to rubella described by Bates from the 
Amazon region, but it differs from that species in having the sides of the 
pronotum more obtusely angulated, dorsal tubercles on the pronotum more 
feebly elevated, base and apex of the elytra entirely black, and the elytra not 
so abruptly angulated at the apices. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES | 


THE ACADEMY 
235TH MEETING 


The 235th meeting of the AcapEmy was held in the Assembly Hall of the 
Cosmos Club at 8:15 P.M. on Thursday, November 20, 1930. President 
Bowie introduced as the speaker Dr. ApotpH H. Scuuutz of the Johns 
Hopkins Medical School, who delivered the seventh of the series of lectures 
upon origin and evolution. About 175 persons were present. 

Program: ApoteH H. Scuuutz: Man’s place among the primates.  (Il- 
lustrated with lantern slides.)—All the investigators agree that man must be 
assigned to the order of primates but there exist widely differing claims in 
regard to man’s exact place within this mammalian order. The evidence 
supporting these claims includes a wide variety of specialities ranging from 
fetal membranes to blood-serum reactions. Skulls and teeth of primates have 
been studied in much greater detail than other bodily parts, adult animals and 
men have been examined much more frequently and thoroughly than physio- 
logical studies. 

In the address some of the less widely known evidence was used for the 
reconstruction of the primate family tree and of the exact place thereon of the 
human branch. The author discussed chiefly growth, the skeleton and varia- 
tions, with lantern slides illustrating a very heterogenous mass of data to 
emphasize the necessity of representing a pedigree as a compromise between 
the results from many different fields of investigation. 

The theme that man has a definite place among the primates was developed 
and illustrated by lantern slides showing size, growth, the recapitulation 
theory, tail, nasal cartilages, shoulders and neck, nipples, arm proportions, 
limb proportions in general, variations; skeleton: spine, sternum, pelvis and 
foot. This was followed by a comparative study of hair and its distribution 
in the group. 


JAN. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 25 


The data were marshalled to show that man is not only a member of the 
mammalian order of primates but resembles most closely the large anthropoid 
apes, which must have had one and the same ancestor with man; that in many 
respects man is still more primitive than his simian cousins, which have be- 
come more highly specialized in regard to the conditions of the spine, the 
sternum, etc.; that in other respects man has departed farther from the com- 
mon ancestral condition than have the apes, but the difference between man 
and some apes is rarely greater than the difference in the same feature between 
that ape and some other ape. Man’s greatest specializations exist chiefly in 
those parts which had to be changed with (and by) the assumption of an 
erect posture. This is clearly evident in man’s pelvis, foot, skull, and length 
of lower limb. . 

Many evolutionary changes consist in the loss of a structure which pre- 
viously had served a definite purpose. Examples were cited: the third eyelid, 
or nictitating membrane, and loss of the thumb in monkeys in America and 
Africa. Sometimes new characters appear, such as extreme webbing between 
the second and third toes. Some evolutionary changes are observed right 
now if we examine large series of individuals, such as loss of third molar. The 
same evolutionary trend prevails independently in the American spider 
monkey, among which 15% lack 3rd molars. This was shown in slides on 
variations in monkey skulls, human fetuses, relative ear sizes, etc., which are 
variations that run in families (are hereditary). Such variations are al- 
ready present before birth. EXverywhere we turn we find ample material for 
selection in the form of individual variations of a congenital nature. 

The author concludes that 99 out of every 100 variations are indifferent in 
regard to value to their owner. Most variations have no selective significance 
by themselves. Nevertheless, evolutionary changes can occur with such 
indifferent but selected variations as stepping stones. This is possible and 
even unavoidable because different variations of one and the same body are 
correlated to one another as clearly shown by the modern study of human 
constitutions. We have learned to recognize distinct constitutional types by 
their definite combinations of variations. One type, for instance, has long 
limbs, a slender trunk and little body hair on the chest and limbs. Many 
investigations have demonstrated that one type is more susceptible to certain 
diseases than the other type. These diseases are clearly selective agencies, 
which select not only relative immunity to a disease but with it relative 
length of limb and amount of hair. Weare just beginning to realize that some 
constitutional types thrive better in a tropical climate than do other types. 
There are many other factors which might select the different constitutions. 
Such types are not restricted to man but have been demonstrated among 
primitive monkeys, shot in their native jungles. Malaria and other diseases 
are known to be shockingly prevalent among these monkeys. It is not at all 
unlikely, though not yet proved, that different constitutions in monkeys, as 
in man, are differently susceptible to some diseases and that in this way one 
type may gradually become eliminated from the population of the species. In 
this way we can understand that variations in limb length, ear size, hairiness, 
etc. become selected not because they are directly advantageous but because 
they happen to be combined with physiological variations, which cause a 
different resistance to disease, climate, or diet. 

“The problem of man’s place among primates includes two separate ques- 
tions: (1) What is this place? and (2) How did man come to occupy such 
a place? The first question I have tried to answer on the basis of careful 


26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 21, No. 2 


comparisons between man and other primates, that is, by the approved 
taxonomic methods. Such comparisons force us to the conclusion that man 
is most nearly related to the anthropoid apes. The second question is far 
more complicated and difficult to answer and one has to deal mostly with 
possibilities and probabilities. I have given you ample evidence for the con- 
- clusion that evolution is not only a theory but a philosophy without which no 
student of nature can understand nature. We cannot escape the evidence 
from all scientific observations that species have changed in the past and are 
continuing to change today, and that man does not form an exception to this 
rule. I have not been able, however, to tell you definitely how and why these 
changes take place. A great deal more work will have to be done before we 
can prove the exact working method or the many methods of evolution. We 
can demonstrate with certainty that there exists a constant and abundant 
supply of variations from which to select new forms. ‘The working of these 
selections is still a matter of speculation and an inducement for future intensive 
research.” (Author’s abstract.) 

CHARLES THOM, Recording Secretary. 


GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


467TH MEETING 


The 467th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Room of the 
Cosmos Club, Wednesday evening, October 29, 1930, President G. R. MAns- 
FIELD presiding. 

Informal communications: Davip WHITE reviewed the autumn meeting of 
the National Academy of Sciences. He called attention to papers by Davis 
on limestone caves, SETCHELL on the activity of algae in limestone formation, 
MILLIKAN on the radioactivity of glacial drifts and the rate of elevation of the 
Hudson Bay country and by LyMann on pre-Cambrian bacteria. Discussed 
by Messrs. THompson and CookgE. 

R. C. WELLS announced a series of round-table discussions of geochemistry 
which are being held fortnightly in the Chemical Laboratory of the U. 8. 
Geological Survey. 

Program: Curt TxEIcHERT, University of Freiburg, Germany: Recent 
German theories. (A paper on this subject appears in this JouURNAL21: 1-12.) 

Discussed by G. R. MANSFIELD. 

E. G. Zres: The geologist and analyst—a study in coéperation.—A plea was 
entered for better codperation between geologist and analyst. Evidence was 
presented which brought out the wide variation in results obtained when a 
synthetic silicate was submitted for analysis to a number of chemists actively 
engaged in such work. The composition of this material had previously been 
accurately determined both by synthesis of the pure materials and by analysis 
of the final product. It was further shown that accurate chemical and phys- 
ical methods were available for determining the various constituents. 

Much of the difficulty is caused by the fact that analysis can quite easily 
become a deadly routine, utterly devoid of creative possibilities if the analyst 
neither has nor is given an interest in the application of his results to the prob- 
lem which is being investigated. A great amount of poor work is being done 
by the chemist and accepted by the geologist because there is no mutual under- 
standing of their respective problems. 


JAN. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 27 


Analysis at its best is a science, an art, and a state of mind. Following 
RUSKIN, it is a science because we should not talk before we know, an art 
because we should not talk before we do, and it is a state of mind because the 
analyst should not undertake an analysis unless he feels confident that his 
methods and his ability will serve the purpose in hand. The geologist should 
know how to appraise the analyst and how to evaluate the results. Further- 
more, the geologist must know the requirements of his problem so that the 
analyst can determine whether the required accuracy is within the limitations 
of his methods. Such coéperation will encourage the analyst to search for 
more accurate methods in the event that the present ones are too crude for 
the purpose in hand. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. WELLS and RuBEY. 


468TH MEETING 


The 468th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Room of the 
Cosmos Club, Wednesday evening, November 12, 1930, President G. R. 
MANSFIELD presiding. 

Informal communications: A. C. SPENCER called attention to a probable 
rock glacier in a small tributary of Difficult Run which joins the Potomac 
River from the west a short distance below Great Falls. 

Discussed by Messrs. Mrertizx and THOMPSON. 

C. W. Cooke: Radial calcite concretions in marine beds in Georgia. Several 
years ago, while examining the section of the Marks Head mar] at Porters 
Landing, Savannah River, Georgia, I found a hard lump which at first glance 
appeared to be a fossil organism, perhaps a coral or a calcareous alga. I 
broke it open in order to examine the internal structure and was surprised to 
find that it consists of a mass of radiating acicular crystals. Some of the 
crystals appear to be curved, but the apparent curvature is probably due to 
the interpolation of shorter crystals toward the periphery rather than to actual 
bending of any one crystal. The crystals are crossed by unevenly spaced con- 
centric white to brownish color bands which are not everywhere at right angles 
to the longer axes of the crystals but which follow the somewhat uneven con- 
tour of the surface of the nodule. The mineral effervesces freely with hydro- 
chloric acid and, according to Mr. Nouan, has the optical properties of calcite. 

Although the nodule was lying loose on the bank of the river it had evi- 
dently fallen from the fine gray sand of the Marks Head marl which contains 
calcareous nodules as large as 2 feet in diameter. Most of the nodules show 
no evidence from the outside that their structure is crystalline, but all that I 
broke open proved to consist of radial crystals. The one exhibited had evi- 
dently been rolled around enough to fracture the ends of the crystals and 
produce a rough surface somewhat like that of a calcareous alga. Calcareous 
concretions have been known at Porters Landing since at least as long ago 
as 1908, when EARLE SLOAN described the section there, but nobody seems to 
have noticed anything unusual about them. 

There are similar concretions in the Upper Cretaceous Eutaw formation at 
Ochillee, Chattahoochee County, Georgia. Both the Eutaw formation and 
the Marks Head marl are marine. (Author’s abstract.) 

A. C. SPENCER showed radial concretions of pyrite, barite and a carbophos- 
phate and suggested that the carbophosphate concretion was pseudomorphous 
after barite. 

S. F. TurRNER exhibited a concretion of radiating crystals of aragonite from 
the Cave of the Winds, Colorado; a chalcedony replacement of aragonite 


28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 2 


crystals from the gravels of the Canadian River in Texas; and aragonite 
crystals from the Pierre shale of Colorado. 

The communications on concretions were discussed ey Messrs. WHITE, 
REsSER, GOLDMAN and SCHALLER. 

W. R. Atwoop showed three specimens from a single log found in the 
Petrified Forest of Arizona. ‘The specimen from one end was a silica replace- 
ment, but the specimen from the other end was lignite. The intermediate 
portion of the log was partly silica and partly lignite. Discussed by Messrs. 
WHITE, GOLDMAN, and SPENCER. 

Program: C.H. Dane: Uncompahgre Plateau and related structural features.— 
The Uncompahgre Plateau is a topographic elevation closely coincident with 
an anticlinal uplift, oval in shape, some 90 miles in length with its longer axis 
extending northwest to southeast. Most of the uplift is within the State of 
Colorado but the plunging north end extends into Grand County, Utah. The 
folding occurred at the close of the Cretaceous period and the pre-Cambrian 
granitic and metamorphic core of the Plateau uplift acted as a bulwark, the 
direction of which is reflected by parallel smaller folds to the southwest. The 
Plateau is located along the western margin of an ancient land mass which ex- 
tended southeastward through western Colorado into northern New Mexico 
during Pennsylvanian, Permian, and lower Triassic time. The northern limit 
of this old land area is concealed beneath the Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments 
of the Uinta Basin. An estimate of the volume of clastic sediments derived 
from the erosion of this land suggests that it may have been a mountain range, 
the crest of which stood at least a mile above the margins although the land 
was less than one hundred miles in width. The coarseness of the conglomer- 
atic sediments deposited near the margins suggests a rugged topography com- 
patible with the probable great height of the old range. Although the range 
was peneplained before or during upper Triassic time, sediments deposited 
during the Jurassic period thin toward the area of the old land and are missing 
over parts of it. The area was completely submerged by the marine invasion 
of the Upper Cretaceous, but the post-Cretaceous folding which formed the 
Uncompahgre Plateau anticline followed the trend of the old land and uplifted 
part of its western margin. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. W. R. ATwoop, SPENCER, BAKER and GOLDMAN. 

W.R. Atwoop: Mid-Tertiary glacial deposits in southern France.—In the 
vicinity of Mt. Aigoual at the southern margin of the great Central Massif 
of France, distinct evidence of an ancient glaciation has been found in the form 
of tillite and striated bed rock. The tillite is characteristically physically 
and lithologically heterogeneous and is firmly consolidated wherever it has 
been recently uncovered. ‘The stones found in the matrix vary in size from 
very small pebbles, to large boulders more than a meter in diameter. The 
larger boulders are predominantly of gray granite porphyry originating in the 
immediate vicinity. They are rarely striated, probably because they were 
not carried far, or because they disintegrate rapidly. The smaller stones that 
are less than a foot in diameter are not always typically glacial in form, but 
they are almost invariably well striated. 

The scarcity of glacial phenomena; the entire absence of the topographic 
situations where alpine glaciers could have formed; and the fact that the tillite 
has no topographic expression in the landscape—a landscape which has been 
but slightly changed since mid-Tertiary time—would indicate that the streams 
of that period had quite thoroughly removed the glacial debris and destroyed 
the glacial topography before the close of the mid-Tertiary erosion period. 


JAN. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 29 


Had the glaciers that deposited the tillite been Pleistocene in age, the abun- 
dant debris, which must have been present, could not have been so nearly 
removed without appreciably altering the mid-Tertiary landscape. The 
glaciers that left the tillite must have been mountain glaciers that originated 
in Oligocene or early Miocene mountains which are known to have existed in 
this region following the uplift and faulting which took place during Oligo- 
cene time. 

A review of the literature shows that PsETuRSSON reports Miocene glacial 
deposits in Iceland, ScHarpt reports Miocene glaciation in Italy, Mazzuoui 
also reports Miocene in Italy and the present author, in collaboration with 
Wa.uace W. Atwoop, has twice reported positive proof of Eocene or Oligo- 
cene glacial deposits in western United States. Glaciation during the mid- 
Tertiary is therefore recognized in several localities, and it is logical to believe 
that in the Cevennes we have another proof of this ancient glacial epoch. 
(Authors abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. Mmrtre, ALDEN, SEARS, SPENCER and RuBEY. 


469TH MEETING 


The 469th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Room of the 
Cosmos Club, Wednesday evening, November 26, 1930, President G. R. 
MANSFIELD presiding. 

Informal communications: JAMES GILLULY discussed a recent paper by 
EDWARD GREENLY on Folzation and its relation to folding in the Mona complex 
at Rhoscolyn, Anglesey. G@REENLY attributes monoplanic schists to flat- 
angled overthrusting—the common occurrence of folded monoplanic schists 
to later warping of the planes of schistosity. GILLULY pointed out that the 
stretching phenomena shown by the monoplanic schists of the Adirondack 
region do not support a similar interpretation but seem to indicate the origin 
of a foliation concomitant with its warping. 

Discussed by Mr. HEss. 

M. I. GoLpMAN showed specimens of polygonal columns formed by weather- 
ing of a silty grit in Permian red beds cropping out on an anticlinal nose which 
extends eastward from the Harz Mountains, Germany. A photograph of the 
outcrop was shown as a lantern slide. 

Discussed by Messrs. BripGe and HUBBARD. 

Program: F. L. Hess: A unique Bolivian tungsten deposit. 

Discussed by Mr. BurcHARD. 

B. R. Hupparp, S. J., Univeristy of Santa Clara, California: Geologic 
features of Aniakchak and Veniaminof craters, Alaska.—Aniakchak and Veni- 
aminof craters were discovered by a Geological Survey party under R. H. 
SARGENT in 1922, and W. B. Smits, geologist of the party, entered Aniakchak 
crater. In a second expedition in 1925 R. 8. KNapprn was geologist of the 
party. Aniakchak Crater, latitude 56° 45’, longitude 158° 9’, is situated mid- 
way along the Alaska Peninsula and has a base circumference of approximately 
100 miles. Starting at sea level it rises to an elevation of 4,200 feet and has 
a rim whose perimeter is 21 miles. It appears to be an explosive crater that 
ejected about 19 cubic miles of material. Bombs with texture similar to 
rocks within the crater are found 25 miles away and the Aniakchak River cuts 
through ejected material all the way to Aniakchak Bay. Many interesting 
phenomena subsequent to the great explosion are found in the 30-square-mile 
area within the crater walls. A rift begins in Bering Sea and extends across 
the crater. Thence it traverses the block of sedimentary rocks that comprises 


30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 2 


the mountains through which the Aniakchak River has cut a canyon somewhat 
in the form of an attenuated letter S. This rift might account for the depres- 
sion on the west side of the crater and the V-shaped notch of the eastern rim 
out of which the river flows. Fossiliferous Jurassic strata form part of the 
walls to the left of the V-shaped entrance. Lava muds and basalts top the 
crater walls. A minor cone, here called Vent Mountain, has a crater 1,000 
feet in diameter and rises 2,200 feet above the main floor. Surprise Lake, 24 
miles long, is formed by the impounding of water by deltas. Two lava cones 
and soda-iron bicarbonate springs occur at the head of the lake. Iron soda 
springs rise likewise from the lake bottom. Two explosion pits lie below the 
general level between Vent Mountain and Black Nose. In the western side 
of Aniakchak Crater a crescentic sub-crater about two miles in diameter 
contains a cinder cone from which as a center radiate lava flows that have 
concentric arcs of flowage lines. Near this cinder cone are several active 
fumaroles. Obsidian with columnar structure protrudes from the wall of the 
subcrater in many exposures. Here, too, active fumaroles, whose vapors come 
out under pressure, occur along fissure lines. A lava cone whose crater is 
filled with water, and a second cinder cone are found near the depression of the 
rim at the western wall. 

Veniaminof Crater southwest of Black Lake is approximately 100 miles in 
circumference at the base and rises to a rim about 20 miles in circumference 
at an elevation of 8,400 feet. It contains a crater glacier that spills over the 
depressed rim and extends over a wide area for 25 miles towards Perryville. 
The ice also escapes through notches in the walls and forms lesser glaciers, 
notably Cone Glacier and Crab Glacier. A cone which smokes and throws 
ashes and black sand down its sides rises over a thousand feet above the ice. 
(Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. SARGENT and Capps. 

K. O. Uuricu: Highlights of the past two seasons’ work. I. Origin and 
stratigraphic horizon of the zinc ores of the Mascot district of Hast Tennessee. 
In April, 1929, Drs. Burrs, Bripcse, Captain Ponp, and I devoted about a 
week to the study of problems connected with the stratigraphic position, 
origin, and probable areal distribution of zinc ores in what we formerly knew 
as the Knox dolomite of Kast Tennessee. The Mascot mine is the most nota- 
ble and successful of the zinc mines in the Appalachian Valley and is one 
which has earned more than the operators put into it. 

We began our investigation at Jefferson City where extensive but shallow 
deposits were successfully worked, many years ago. In recent years prospect 
drilling along the strike of the rocks has disclosed some promising deposits 
that are now showing good ore. Our studies were not concerned so much 
with the prospects and mines themselves as with the reasons for their being, 
that is, why such deposits happen to occur here; and what relation the mineral- 
ized zones bear to stratigraphic horizons, character of country rock, and other 
conditions that may have been responsible for the local enrichment of the 
favoring zones to commercial proportions. 

The formerly generally prevailing and still commonly entertained inter- 
pretation of these deposits is that they occur in fault breccias and that the 
mineral-bearing solutions travelled upward along the fault planes. In essen- 
tial respects then they would fall in the category of fissure veins. In my 
opinion they are neither fissure veins, nor connected with real faults—either 
of normal or thrust types, and the solutions did not come from below. Of 
course I shall not go into details of the complicated processes of mineral deposi- 


JAN. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 31 


tion. It must suffice to state my opinion that the minerals come from the 
country rock and were carried in solution by ground waters which, when sur- 
charged with surface-derived organic acids, tended to precipitate as ores in 
favorable spots. Two conclusions may be reached from the facts observed: 

1. All the commercially valuable and the as yet unproved deposits of 
sphalerite in the belt extending from Knoxville to Morristown were found at a 
definite stratigraphic horizon—namely, in a rather fine-grained, low-magne- 
sian limestone zone with a maximum thickness of about 100 feet. This lime- 
stone apparently is exceptionally favorable to replacement by sphalerite. It 
carries fossils that place it in the horizon of the Jefferson City dolomite of Mis- 
souri where, as in Tennessee, the corresponding formation is underlain by the 
Roubidoux formation and overlain by the Cotter formation. In Tennessee 
as in the Ozark region, the underlying and overlying formations are character- 
ized by profuse development of secondary chert on weathering and by easily 
distinguishable fossils faunas. Formerly, I was inclined to the belief that the 
horizon of the ore was at the unconformable contact between the Ozarkian 
and Canadian systems but that proved to be in error for it lies well up toward 
or rather above the middle of the Canadian, in the lowest of the five or six 
formations now recognized as constituting the sequence of Upper Canadian 
deposits. 

2. The second conclusion is that the highly soluble Upper Canadian lime- 
stone was first honey-combed with sinkholes and caverns. Earthquakes and 
minor movements of the stratified crust caused fracturing and ‘‘spalling’’ of 
the roof and walls of the caverns, the pieces of rock making the accumulations 
of mainly angular fragments commonly referred to by geologists as breccia. 
Under favoring conditions, these accumulations of broken rock were cemented 
and in varying degrees replaced metasomatically by crystalline minerals. 
Often, as at Jefferson City, the greatest development of the ores occurred 
beneath the old sink holes whose position is indicated today by fossiliferous 
residual material of the Cotter formation which has slumped down into 
the horizon of the Jefferson City formation. As far as observed, the mineral- 
ization is largely and perhaps entirely confined in the areas of east Tennessee 
under consideration to the lower only very slightly cherty formation. 

In conclusion, in the mines at Mascot and in the vicinity of Jefferson City 
the ores are confined to a definite stratigraphic horizon and this fact is simply 
and positively fatal to the conception that they occur in anything like true 
fissure veins or in fault breccias. (Author’s abstract.) i 

Discussed by Messrs. Hess, MENDENHALL, R. C. WELLS, GILLULY, GOLD- 
MAN, BurRcHARD, Misr, C. 8S. Ross, HEwertt, BRIDGE. 


470TH MEETING 


The 470th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club December 
10, 1930, President G. R. MANsFIELD presiding. Vice President MErINzER 
took the chair during the presentation of the presidential address: Problems 
of the Phosphoria formation in the Rocky Mountains. 


38TH ANNUAL MEETING 


The 38th annual meeting was held at the Cosmos Club after the adjourn- 
ment of the 470th regular meeting, President G. R. MANSFIELD presiding. 
The annual report of the Secretaries was read. The Treasurer presented his 
annual report showing an excess of assets over liabilities of $1122.09 on De- 


32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 2 


cember 8, 1930. The auditing committee reported that the books of the 
Treasurer were correct. 

The results of balloting for officers for the ensuing year were as follows: 

President: O. E. MuInzER. 

Vice Presidents: F. L. Hrss and R. C. WE.Lzs. 

Secretaries: C. H. DANE and A. M. PirEr. 

Treasurer: C. WYTHE COOKE. 

Members-at-Large of the Council: W. H. Brapuey, Jos1aH BRIDGE, JAMES 
GiLtLuLy, W. D. Jounston, Jr., J. B. MmrRrTin, JR. 

Nominee as Vice President of the Washington Academy of Sciences ve 
senting the Geological Society: G. R. MANSFIELD. 

JAMES GILLULY, C. H. DANg, Seeremmes 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


Because of the greatly increased activities of the Water Resources Branch 
of the Geological Survey, Joun C. Hoyt has been relieved of his administra- 
tive duties in order to permit him to render expert services along technical 
engineering phases of water-resources investigations and to serve as a con- 
sultant to the Director and Chief Hydraulic Engineer. Cari G. PAULSEN 
succeeds Mr. Hoyt as Chief of the Division of Surface Water. 


The vacancy in the position of Division Engineer in charge of the Pacific 
Division of the Topographic Branch of the Geological Survey caused by the 
death of T. G. GmRpDINE has been filled by the transfer of H. H. Hopexzson. 
Col. GLENN 8. Situ, for some time past on occasional duty status, succeeds 
Mr. Hopacsson as Division Engineer in charge of the Central Division. 


The Carnegie Institution of Washington is sending a group of scientists to 
Guatemala to explore the geology, flora, and fauna of that part of the little- 
known Peten District which is accessible from the camp of the Institution’s 
Division of Historical Research at Uaxactun. The party will include Prof. 
H. H. Bartuert, chairman of the department of botany of the University of 
Michigan; Dr. C. WyTHE Cooke, geologist, U. 8. Geological Survey; Dr. A. 
MuRIE, assistant curator of mammals, University of Michigan; and Dr. 
J. VAN TYNE, assistant curator of birds, University of Michigan. They sail 
January 23rd from New Orleans to Belize, British Honduras, whence they 
proceed by river boat to El Cayo, and thence by pack train to Uaxactun. 


Dr. C. G. Apsot, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, has been 
named a member of the National Council for Intellectual Cooperation, which 
represents the United States in the newly organized Inter-American Institute 
of Intellectual Cooperation. The purpose of this institute is to mobilize the 
intelligence and the culture of the three Americas by organizing in each of the 
21 American republics a council for promoting such policies as the interchange 
of students and research workers, the removal of prejudiced statements from 
geographies and histories, and finding ways and means of making available to 
all the information resources of the different countries. 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou: 21 FEBRUARY 4, 1931 No. 3 


PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.—Adsorption and base exchange.! P. G. 
NvuttinG, Geological Survey. - 


One substance is adsorbed by another when it is not removable by a 
neutral solvent. Dyes are adsorbed by textile fibers, salts by soils, 
dark components of petroleum by filtering clays, so that they cannot 
be washed off by solvents, such as water, alcohol or gasoline. In a 
more general sense, a substance is adsorbed when its fugacity is lowered 
from what it would be were the second substance not present, its con- 
centration increases and its vapor and solution tensions decrease as 
the adsorbing surface is approached. Adsorption is not necessarily 
limited to the visible surface and in some cases shades off into true 
chemical reaction in stoichiometric proportions or into true solution, 
long before molecular dimensions are reached. 

Adsorption is naturally very sensitive to changes in temperature and 
pressure (or concentration) but reaches a true reversible equilibrium 
given time enough. In a few cases, a slight rise in temperature is 
sufficient to remove all or nearly all the moisture adsorbed on salts or 
minerals or the organic vapors adsorbed on charcoal. In compara- 
tively few cases also, lowering the concentration (vapor or solution) 
may remove an adsorbed film. In general however adsorption-temper- 
ature and adsorption-concentration relations present the widest variety 
of forms and ranges. 

The material adsorbed may be either molecular or ionic, positive 
ions depositing on an electronegative particle and vice versa. Polar 
molecules are adsorbed with like ends attached to the adsorbing sur- 
face, presenting a new adsorbing surface of the same charge as the 


1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received 
December 11, 19380. 


33 


34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 3 


original one. Similarly positive and negative ions may pile up in 
alternate layers. In the case of adsorbed water, H and OH constitute 
the alternate layers and in thick films are indistinguishable from ad- 
sorbed molecular water. In crystallization from solution ions are 
adsorbed in pairs. Nonpolar molecules also vary in concentration 
near a surface of discontinuity but this is a purely physical pheno- 
menon, the seat of surface tension and adhesion. This form of sur- 
face film yields readily to solvents and is not considered adsorption 
proper. 

Base exchange is concerned with single layers of adsorbed ions, 
practically in chemical combination with the surface and in extreme 
cases, with every combinable atom present, whether the dispersion be 
partial or complete. It is not unusual to find one base completely 
replaceable while another is only partly replaceable in the same granu- 
lar substance. Weak bases are replaced by stronger ones, and every 
other base by H by means of an acid treatment. The mass law holds 
and equilibrium constants may be found without great difficulty. 
Particles settling out carry adsorbed charges down with them. ‘Table 
1 shows the complexity of the behavior of even the simplest water 
suspensions. 

Since two or more of these are usually present in any given sample of 
soil colloid, it is to be expected that conflicting results would be ob- 
tained in working with such samples. 

Table 1 is somewhat idealized, for in water at room temperature 
the adsorption is probably many pairs of ions deep in all cases. How- 
ever, the innermost layer is by far the most effective and dominates 
the behavior of the micelle. At higher temperatures, the outer less 
strongly held layers would be set free and this may account for the 
better results sometimes obtained at elevated temperatures in practi- 
cal filtration, dyeing, ete. | 

Oil sands sometimes but rarely consist of well formed quartz crystals 
free from adsorbed coatings. Such sands usually consist of ill-formed, 
rough quartz grains, coated with ferrous or ferrous-aluminum sili- 
cates or with adsorbed black hydrocarbon which cannot be washed 
off with even the most powerful solvents. Grain coatings of car- 
bonates (Fe, Ca, Mg) are not uncommon. ‘The well known Bradford 
oil sand is coated first with colloidal iron, then with black hydrocarbon. 
The Tensleep oil sand is pure quartz heavily coated with a hydrocar- 
bon. The pore walls of oil-bearing limes are black with hydrocarbon. 


FEB. 4, 1931 NUTTING: ADSORPTION AND BASE EXCHANGE 30 


It is possible to peel off these two layers from a Bradford sand and 
even to restore them. The hydrocarbon is removed with chromic 
acid (‘‘wet combustion’’), the iron with ordinary acids. The grains 
thus peeled are active and if thoroughly washed and dried will re- 
adsorb coatings of either iron (from dialized iron in dilute suspension) 
or hydrocarbon from crude oil in a few hours. It was found easily 
possible to activate even sea sand or the faces of a quartz crystal by 
first attacking with alkali, then washing with acid, then with water, 
and drying. Such an activated silica surface, freed from H and OH 
by heating to 200°C., will freely adsorb all kinds of positive ions, even 


TABLE 1. Cuasses or WATER SUSPENSIONS 


Class Micelle Surface Exchangeable ion Dispersing eifect 


i Negative H H Acid 
Z Positive OH OH Alkaline 
3) Negative OH inner H Alkaline 
H outer 
4 Positive H inner OH Acid 
OH outer 


1. Silica gel, acid clay, humus. 

2. Colloidal Ca3(POx)2, dialized iron (?). 

3. Calcium permutites, zeolites, neg. Al(OH);. 
4. Electropositive Al(OH);. 


amphoteric colloidal alumina and probably anything less negative 
than silica. 

Well-aged dialized iron is inert toward even strong acids or alkalis, 
but even a very dilute suspension (1 part per million) is readily ad- 
sorbed by active silica. Iron stains in old bath tubs are readily ex- 
plained if it be supposed that the long-continued drip of fresh water on 
the porcelain leaches out sufficient alkali to leave an active alkali 
silicate surface to adsorb the very dilute iron from tap water. There 
is abundant geological evidence for the solution and redeposition of 
silica by water, hence it is not surprising to find oil sands generally 
activated and coated as well as silica cemented. 

Classes 1 and 3 of Table 1 after thorough drying make good clarify- 
ing filters for mineral oils such as petroleum but do not filter vegetable 


36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 3 


oils or mineral fats containing OH. If the normal hydrogen has been 
replaced by an alkali (K, Na), the filter must first be acid treated. 
On the other hand classes 2 and 4, or clays containing these in excess, 
make the best filters for animal and vegetable oils. That the presence 
of the hydroxyl ion is the vital factor is readily shown by adding a ~ 
little alcohol, linseed oil or glycerine (all rich in OH) to a crude petro- 
leum; filtration is inhibited. 

One filtering clay is known which filters all three classes of oils about 
equally well. Chemical analysis shows this to contain a little alkali, 
enough to give it an amphoteric dispersing character ; SiO, 69, Al,O; 13, 
Fe.O3 8, (Ca, Mg)O 2, and (K,Na).O 2.5 per cent, the rest chiefly water. 

All good filtering clays retain 12 to 22 percent of water when room- 
dry at low humidities and part with most of it only on heating to well 
over 150° or 200°C. ‘This is as it should be with H and OH firmly 
adsorbed. Driving these off as water would leave open bonds ready 
to attack the more basic colored constituents of oil. If they be not 
driven off (moist filter), only bases stronger than H and OH and there- 
fore capable of replacing them would be adsorbed and filtered out. 
It is found that a filter not thoroughly dried will filter black petroleum 
to a yellow but not to water white as a dry filter will. 

Since adsorbed moisture leaves an active silicate surface only at 
high temperatures, a high-temperature (250°C.) water treatment is a 
means of producing an active surface on silica or a silicate. The H 
and OH bonds (toward silica) are in a labile state at such temperatures 
provided the water is confined to prevent its escape. Release of that 
pressure leaves the bonds open. Even a carbonate may be converted 
to a hydrate by high-temperature steam treatment if the CO, is al- 
lowed to escape while the supply of H,.O is maintained. 

Many other colloidal oxides besides silica and the silicates may be 
prepared as good filters. Their action is similar in principle as regards 
adsorption and base exchange even when the micelle is electropositive. 
The writer has prepared three (Fe, Al and Si) so powerful as to crack 
even paraffin and heavy laxative oils, reducing them from clear to a 
black condition. This is done by preparing the gel in maximum dilu- 
tion. Active colloidal iron, in the form of a dark red-brown powder, 
will even filter dialized iron from a very dilute yellow suspension, 
leaving clear water. This form of autoadsorption between colloids 
is akin to crystallization (adsorption of ions in pairs). The deposit of 
colloidal iron on and near the surface of siliceous pebbles in stream 
beds is very common. 


FEB. 4, 1931 GAHAN: HYMENOPTEROUS PARASITES 7 


ENTOMOLOGY .—Two new hymenopterous parasites of Tachypterellus 
consors Dietz.1 A. B. GaHan, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, 
Bureau of Entomology. (Communicated by Harotp Morrison.) 


Two species of Chalcidoidea which appear to be new to science are 
herewith described. These were reared by Gnorce M. List of the 
Colorado Agricultural College in connection with his studies of their 
host, a curculionid which is said to be causing considerable injury to 
cherries in the vicinity of Fort Collins, Colorado. Mr. List intends 
to describe the host insect as a new variety of T. consors Dvetz. 


Family PTEROMALIDAE 


Habrocytus lividus, new species 


This resembles H. piercet Crawford in size and shape but may be dis- 
tinguished by the darker, less metallic color of the body and the dark brown 
or black tibiae, by the shorter ocellocular line which is barely longer than the 
diameter of an ocellus, and by the shorter propodeum which is without a 
distinct neck. Differs from H. obscuripes Ashmead by the differently colored 
body and legs, by the more strongly transverse head, and by the less strongly 
sculptured propodeum. 


Female.—Length 2.6 mm. Antennae inserted at middle of head; scape 
cylindrical, extending a little above the vertex; pedicel about twice as long 
as broad, slender; two ring-joints distinct but transverse; first funicle joint 
about as long as and a little thicker than the pedicel, not quite twice as long 
as broad; second to fifth funicle joints each distinctly longer than broad, sub- 
equal in length to pedicel, the sixth barely longer than broad; club short 
ovate, one half wider than the sixth funicle joint and about as long as the 
fifth and sixth combined. Head strongly transverse, thin antero-posteriorly 
at vertex, concave behind, reticulate-punctate all over, the sculpture a little 
finer on vertex and cheeks than on frons and face; ocellocular line very slightly 
longer than the diameter of a lateral ocellus; eyes bare, malar space equal to 
about half the height of eye; right mandible four-toothed, the left three- 
toothed but with the inner tooth broadly truncate and a little concave at 
apex. Thorax sculptured like the head but with the punctures appearing a 
little deeper; mesoscutum broader than long, the parapsidal grooves absent 
on posterior half; scutellum and axillae a little more finely sculptured than the 
mesoscutum; propodeum short, with a median carina, the lateral folds more 
or less incomplete, represented at base by deep fossae on either side of the 
middle and at apex by similar fossae, the two fossae on each side sometimes 
joined to each other by a very weak longitudinal groove; spiracular groove 
deep and distinct, spiracles elliptical; propodeum medially with weak reticu- 
lation, usually with some foveae along the anterior margin, outside the folds 
practically smooth. Marginal vein of forewing twice as long as stigmal, the 
post-marginal very slightly shorter than marginal; discal cilia absent behind 
submarginal vein. Abdomen twice as long as thorax and about as wide as 


1 Received December 22, 1930. 


38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 3 


thorax, conic ovate, sessile, the first tergite occupying less than one fourth 
the length of abdomen, smooth, following tergites weakly reticulated. Gen- 
eral color bluish black; scape yellowish testaceous; flagellum dark brown; 
wings hyaline, venation pale brownish; coxae bluish, all femora and tibiae 
brownish black, the knees narrowly, extreme apices of hind tibiae and all 
tarsi yellowish testaceous; abdomen mostly black but with the basal tergite 
metallic blue green. The head, propodeum, underside of thorax, and the 
hind femora show strong steel-blue tints in some lights. 

Male.—Length 2 mm. Similar to the female except that the antennal 
pedicel is hardly twice as long as thick, the club is very little broader than the 
preceding joint, the tibiae are brownish testaceous with the same color 
pattern as the female but not so dark, and the abdomen is not longer than 
the thorax. | 

Type-locality.—F ort Collins, Colorado. 

Type.—Cat. No. 48263, U. 8. N. M. 

Host.—Tachypterellus consors Dietz. 

Two females and five males received from G. M. List with the statement 
that they were reared from the above-named host infesting cherry. The 
type bears the date July 17, 1929, while other specimens bear dates ranging 
from July 13 to July 17, 1929. One male paratype was returned to the 
collector. 


Family EHULOPHIDAE 


Entedon tachypterelli, new species 


This species is similar to #. occzdentalis Girault but differs by having the 
clypeus much smaller and less prominent, by having the post-marginal vein 
distinctly a little longer than the stigmal, and by having the abdomen dis- 
tinctly conic-ovate and longer than the head and thorax combined. The 
first funicle joint is also shorter than in EL. occidentalis and the hind tibiae are 
less extensively black. | 


Female.—Length 3 mm. Antennae inserted nearly on a line with the 
lower extremities of the eyes; consisting of eight joints and a very short 
terminal spine; scape cylindrical, slightly curved and attaining the level of 
the front ocellus; pedicel about two and one-half times as long as thick and 
somewhat more slender than first funicle joint; one small ring-joint; funicle 
three-jointed, the first joint a little more than two and one-half times as 
long as broad and slightly longer than the pedicel, second joint shorter than 
the first but longer than the third, the latter usually slightly less than twice 
as long as broad; club 2-jointed, about as long as first funicle joint, ovate and 
terminating in a very short spine. 

Head viewed from above four times as broad as long; vertex perpendicu- 
larly truncated behind; ecciput very slightly concave; eyes large, conspicu- 
ously hairy; ocelli in an obtuse triangle, the ocellocular line very slightly 
longer than the diameter of lateral ocellus; frontovertex strongly rugoso-punc- 
tate; face below antennae, cheeks, and temples more finely rugulose-punctate; 
clypeus not prominent, its anterior margin not reflexed. Thorax robust; 
prothorax short, much narrower and on a much lower level than the mesono- 
tum; mesoscutum convex, coarsely rugoso-punctate, the punctures somewhat 
coarser on posterior half of the median lobe than elsewhere, the parapsidal 


FEB. 4, 1931 COCHRAN: NEW BAHAMAN REPTILES a9 


grooves complete and each terminating posteriorly in a deep depression; 
scutellum rather large, convex, sculptured like the mesoscutum, usually with 
a broad shallow transverse depression near the middle; axillae broadly sepa- 
rated and sculptured like the scutellum; propodeum shining, more or less 
weakly reticulated, the median carina distinct but without a foveolate furrow 
along either side of it, lateral folds represented by very broad deep furrows or 
depressions which cause that portion of the propodeum between these folds 
to appear as an elevated area with sharp lateral margins; propodeal spiracles 
round, the spiracular areas appearing as rather large tubercles or raised areas 
surrounded by deep grooves; marginal vein longer than submarginal and dis- 
tinctly somewhat thicker at base than at apex; postmarginal longer than the 
stigmal; hind coxae dorsally rather coarsely reticulated, laterally and beneath 
more finely sculptured. 

Abdomen conic-ovate, subsessile, about one-fourth longer than the head 
and thorax together, usually slightly narrower than the thorax, the first, 
second, third, and fourth tergites weakly reticulated; first, sixth, and seventh 
tergites subequal in length and each a little longer than any of the other ter- 
gites; ovipositor originating at or very near base of abdomen and not extend- 
ing beyond the apex. 

Head, thorax, all coxae, and first tergite bluish green, occiput black; anten- 
nal flagellum brownish black, the scape bluish green; mandibles black, with 
their apices brown; all trochanters, all femora, a band of varying width (some- 
times embracing half their length) on the middle and hind tibiae near base, 
and the anterior and posterior margins of front tibiae, dark bluish to black; 
knees, all tibiae except as indicated, and all tarsi pale yellow; abdomen except 
first tergite bronzy black; wings hyaline with the venation dark brown. 

Male.——Length2.5mm. Similar tothe female but with the scape distinctly 
though not greatly thickened, the flagellum somewhat more tapered toward 
apex, the club more distinctly separated into two joints, the ocellocular line 
equal to the diameter of a lateral ocellus, abdomen not longer than the thorax, 
elliptical in outline, distinctly petiolate, the petiole about as long as broad. 
The color agrees with that of the female except that the front is deep purplish. 

Type-localitty—Fort Collins, Colorado. 

Type—Cat. No. 43262, U. S. N. M. 

Host.—Tachypterellus consors Dietz. 


Described from eight females and eight males received from Gro. M. List 
of the Colorado Agricultural College with the information that they were 
reared from the above named curculionid. One paratype of each sex returned 
to the collector. 


HERPETOLOGY.—New Bahaman reptiles. Doris M. Cocuran, 
U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by C. WyTHE CooKE.) 


During the summer of 1930 an extensive collecting trip through the 
Bahama Islands was carried out by Dr. Paut Bartscu of the United 
States National Museum, supported by the WALTER RATHBONE Bacon 
Scholarship Fund. Islands which no naturalist had hitherto visited 


1 Received December 29, 1930. Published by permission of the Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution. 


a 


40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 3 


were explored for the first time scientifically. Excellent series of 
lizards obtained from many localities have already proved valuable in 
studies of variation among species which before have been poorly 
represented in any museum collection. 


Leiocephalus inaguae, new species 


Diagnosis.—A distinct lateral fold; four scales (an internasal and three 
prefrontals) between the rostral and the supraorbital ring; the second prefron- 
tal large and in contact with its fellow; body scales moderately large, 70 to 
82 dorsals between occiput and beginning of tail, 16 to 20 in the distance be- 
tween end of snout and occiput; males with a row of large squarish black 
blotches on the shoulder region, continuing down the sides and fading out 
rapidly; faint traces of two more rows of squarish blotches on the back. 

Type .—U.S. N. M. Cat. No. 81277, an adult male from Man of War 
Bay, Great Inagua Island, collected August 8, 1930. 


Leiocephalus carinatus punctatus, new subspecies 


Diagnosis.—Closely resembling the Cuban Lezocephalus carinatus, but 
differing from it in having a larger scale at the upper anterior region of the 
ear as well as in possessing a more vivid color pattern with a somewhat differ- 
ent arrangement of light and dark pigment especially on the head. 

Type.—U.8. N. M. Cat. No. 81560 (collector’s number 135), a male taken 
on the north shore of the bay at Jamaica Wells, Acklin Island, July 6, 1930. 


Cyclura carinata bartschi new subspecies 


Diagnosis.—Nasals broadly in contact with the rostral and with each other; 
a pair of supranasals also closely in contact with each other; the scales of the 
prefrontal region quite uniform in size and shape, and grading into the smaller 
frontal and parietal scales; supraorbital semicircles barely differentiated by 
an occasional somewhat enlarged scale; scales of the supraocular region 
distinctly smaller than the other supracephalic scutes; two to four enlarged 
vertical canthals on each side of the head; nuchal and caudal crests widely sepa- 
rated from the dorsal crest, which is 12 mm. high (in adult males) and is com- 
posed of 60 to 73 spines (average in 6 specimens, 63.5); nuchal crest composed 
of 16 to 20 spines (average 17.1), the highest of which measures 15 mm.; 4 
vertical rows of small scales between the fifth and sixth verticils of the tail; 
8 supralabials (rarely 9) to a point below the center of the eye; rostral wider 
than the mental; three to four enlarged tibial scales equaling the vertical 
diameter of the tympanic membrane. 

Type.—U. 8. N. M. Cat. No. 81212 (collector’s number 172), an adult 
male from Booby Cay, east of Mariguana Island, Bahamas, collected July 
Zi, 1930, 


Anolis leucophaeus mariguanae, new subspecies 


Diagnosis.—Similar to Anolis leucophaeus Garman, but differing from it 
in coloration. Ground color drab gray above, lavender-gray beneath, often 
with a wide clove-brown lateral band which originates on the loreal region, 
passes through the eye and above the ear, and widens above the shoulder 
continuing onto the base of the tail and gradually fading out; a light area | 
usually bounding its lower border; a second dark lateral stripe beginning on 
the malar region just behind the mental, continuing back beneath the ear and 


FEB. 4, 1931 CHITWOOD: SPERMATOZOA IN A NEMATODE 4] 


merging in front of the shoulder with the upper lateral stripe in some cases, 
in other cases widening and suffusing the entire side of the throat and upper- 
arm region with a dusky mottling; skin of gular fan lavender-gray, the scales 
white or olive-yellow. The young have dark latero-ventral reticulations, 
and the throat usually has a series of dark longitudinal lines. In adult males 
the tail fin is large and its upper edge is indistinctly mottled with dark in the 
region of the rays. Limbs sometimes unmarked, sometimes with wide, irregu- 
lar dark bars. Scales on limbs a little smaller than in lewcophaeus proper; 
seales of tail a little larger. 

Type.—U. 8. Nat. Mus. Cat. No. 81346, an adult male from Mariguana 
Cay, taken July 18, 1930. 


ZOOLOGY .—Flagellate spermatozoa in a nematode (Trilobus longus).! 
B. G. Cuitwoop, The George Washington University. (Com- 
municated by PauL BARTSCH.) 


The spermatozoa of nematodes are usually thought of as ameboid, 
Ascaris having been the example studied for years. Yet Professor 


Figure 2. A testis of a male Trilobus longus showing the flagellate spermatozoa. 
X415. 


EK. B. Witson in 1925? says ‘‘In others such as those of Ascaris, the 
Sperm may be regarded asa much shortened and thickened flagelliform 
cell with a relatively large amount of cytoplasm and a very short and 
non-vibratile tail.’’ If his conception is correct, one would expect to 
find among the free-living nematodes forms in which the spermatozoa 
retain their tail and are capable of movement. 

While examining collections from the beach sand at White Lake, 
North Carolina, attention was drawn to the rather obvious spermato- 
zoa ot T'rilobus longus. They may be readily seen in living specimens 
of both male andfemale. The spermatozoa (Fig. 1) are approximately 
60. long. The head is blunt and expanding quickly posteriorly, and 
of oval outline in transverse section. The small nucleus is situated 


1 Received November 6, 1930. 
2 The cell in development and heredity, p. 298. 


42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 3 


at the extreme anterior end of the head. The tail is long and tapering. 
From a casual observation of both living and sectioned testes (Fig. 2), 
I am inclined to believe that spermatogenesis is normal. Primary and 
secondary spermatocytes as well as spermatids are present. 

W hen a living specimen is mashed and the spermatozoa liberated on 
the slide they move with a slow serpentine motion. Spermatozoa thus 
freed are short-lived, lasting at best only about three minutes. In 
the female the activity of the spermatozoa is best observed. When 
mature females are examined, these almost always contain a somewhat 
twisted ball-shaped mass of spermatozoa in a definite place in each 
uterus, the spermatheca. Here they may be seen slowly squirming 
over one another. 

Probably many other nematodes have flagellate spermatozoa. 
Trilobus longus is described by Dr. N. A. Cops in Ward and Whipple’s 
Fresh Water Biology, a book available to most zoologists. The nema- 
tode is widespread, common on the sandy bottom of lakes and streams 
between the depths of six inches and two feet. The cytologist might 
find the spermatogenesis of Trzlobus an interesting problem. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


1004TH MEETING 


The 1004th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 15, 
1930, President LAMBERT presiding. 

Program: W. J. Roongy: Karth-resistiity survey at Huancayo, Peru, and 
relation of resistivity to earth-current potential records.—This survey, carried 
out near the Huancayo (Peru) Magnetic Observatory of the Department of 
Terrestrial Magnetism in the high Andes, is one of a series of earth-resistiv- 
ity surveys made in connection with the study of earth-currents at observa- 
tories where potential gradient registration is in progress. The general re- 
sistivity of the region and its variation with position, depth, direction of 
current flow and rainfall, were determined. All may affect potential records 
and are indicative of the geological structure. 

The resistivity of soil near the surface varied from over 100,000 to less than 
2000 ohm-cm., depending on the character of the overburden. The mean 
values tended to converge to a value around 10,000 ohm-em., as earth to 
depths of 200 to 300 meters was included in the measurements. These results 
are typical for an underlying structure of sedimentary rocks. A local area of 
high resistivity (values three times the mean for the region as a whole) was 
found near one earth-current line and explains the high-potential gradient 
records obtained from that line. The results were found to be independent 
of the orientation of the survey lines, indicating that the region is laterally 
isotropic. The seasonal variation was small and relatively unimportant. 
(Author’s abstract.) 


FEB. 4, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 43 


Discussed by Messrs. GisH and LAMBERT. 

C. B. Watts: The transit instrument and the synchronous motor.—A new 
driving mechanism for the traveling-wire micrometer of a transit instrument 
has been developed at the Naval Observatory. It consists of a small syn- 
chronous motor, weighing only a few ounces, mounted on the micrometer and 
geared directly to the screw. The speed at which the traveling wire moves 
is adjusted to suit the declination of the star under observation by changing 
the frequency of the current which drives the motor. 

A true alternating current is not required to run the motor, and it has been 
found convenient in practice to change a direct current by means of a rapidly 
revolving commutator into a rough approximation to a two-phase alternating 
current. The commutator is made to revolve at a speed corresponding to a 
particular declination by means of a friction drive. The observer can also 
cause the brushes which take the current from the commutator to rotate 
slowly in one direction or the other and thus alter the frequency by such 
amounts as are necessary to keep the star bisected. This auxiliary apparatus 
is controlled by means of a push button in the observer’s hand. By this 
means very satisfactory results have been secured, the probable error of a 
single observation, including errors of star places, being 0°.12. 

The possibility of applying similar motors to a photographic transit instru- 
ment is also being investigated, the plate being moved in such a way as to 
compensate as nearly as possible for the motion of the starimages. (Author’s 
abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. WHITE, KRAcEK, CURTIS, and LAMBERT. 

R. E. Gipson and L.H.Apams: Thevolume change of rubber under pressure.— 
Direct measurements were made of the, fractional change in volume under- 
gone by samples of rubber when subjected to pressures up to 12,000 mega- 
baryes. The samples investigated were:—hard rubber containing 27 percent 
of sulphur, and two specimens of soft rubber containing 10 and 5 percent 
of sulphur, respectively. Between 1 and 12,000 mb. the changes in volume 
for the specimens in descending order of sulphur content are 13.3, 16.1 and 
18.5 percent of the volume at 1 mb. respectively. The compressibilities of 
the samples arranged in like order fall from 19.2, 35.2 and 36.6 at 1 mb. to 
6.3, 5.9 and 6.3 at 12,000 mb. The compressibilities are fractional volume 
changes expressed in parts per million per megabarye. The course of the 
compressibility curve for soft rubber is strongly suggestive of that of a liquid. 
(Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. CANFIELD, GisH, HAWKESWORTH, DRYDEN, KRACEK, 
L. H. Apams, and CurrTIs. 


1005TH MEETING 


The 1005th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 29, 
1930, President LAMBERT presiding. 

Program: 

C. G. MclIuwraits: Radio frequency standards: Discussed by Messrs. 
BROWN, CRITTENDEN, HumMPHREYS and TUCKERMAN. 

H. Diamonp: Radio aids to air navigation—Research work on a visual- 
type radio-beacon system for use on the airways of the United States has 
been under way at the Bureau of Standards during 1926-1929. Asa result 
of this work a system has been developed which fulfills the requirements for 
course navigation on the civil airways. A directional transmitter is employed 
on the ground making possible the use of simple apparatus on board the air- 


44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 3 


plane. A single receiving set is sufficient to make use of all the radio aids 
provided. Visual indication is provided by means of a tuned-reed course 
indicator. The pilot observes the vibration amplitudes of two reeds. On the 
course, the amplitudes are equal. Off the course, they are unequal, the reed 
vibrating with the greater amplitude being on the side to which the airplane 
has deviated. 

Two types of beacon transmitters are described, the double-modulation 
and the triple-modulation. The former is capable of serving either two 
courses at 180° with each other or four courses at arbitrary angles. The 
latter serves twelve courses at arbitrary angles, and is better adapted for use 
at airports located at the junction of a large number of airways. Reed indi- 
cators for use with the double-modulation and triple-modulation beacons are 
described. 

A discussion of the receiving set and receiving antenna system employed is 
included. Airplane engine ignition shielding is also discussed. 

A marker-beacon system has been developed whereby the pilot is given 
visual indication of his exact position at definite intervals along the route. 

Special adaptations of the beacon system are described for facilitating 
landing in fog. (Author’s abstract.) 


1006TH MEETING 


The 1006th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, April 12, 
1930, Vice President Curtis presiding. 
The program consisted of five illustrated papers discussing various phases of 
the scientific work during the seventh cruise of the Carnegie. ‘The discussion 
of the papers was deferred until they had all been presented. 

Program: J. A. Furmrinec: Terrestrial magnetism.—Of the 110,000 nautical 
miles planned for the seventh cruise of the Carnegie, nearly one-half had been 
completed since her departure from Washington, May 1, 1928, upon her arrival 
at Apia, November 28, 1929. The work done has realized practically in every 
detail the extensive scientific program planned to determine magnetic secular- 
variation, to extend the atmospheric-electric survey, and to undertake more 
comprehensive work in physical and chemical oceanography and in marine 
biology and meteorology. An outstanding feature had been the successful 
development of the practical technique and instrumental appliances for ocean- 
ographic work on a sailing vessel—an accomplishment of which Captain AULT 
and his men had good reason to be proud. During the first six cruises chief 
emphasis was placed on the magnetic and electric programs, with only a mod- 
erate amount of atmospheric-electric and meteorological observations. In 
Cruise VII those high standards planned under the energetic directorship 
of Dr. Bausr and his coworkers, and so well developed by the vessel’s first 
commander, W. J. Prtmrs, and his successor, Captain J. P. AULT, were 
being maintained. 

But Cruise VII was tragically the last of the seven great adventures repre- 
sented by the world-cruises of the Carnegie. It was shortly after one o’clock 
November 29, 1929, while in harbor at Apia, Western Samoa, and completing 
the storage of 2,000 gallons of gasoline, that an explosion took place as the 
result of which Captain AuuT and Cabin-Boy Kouar succumbed, the engi- 
neer, mechanic, and three seamen were injured, and the vessel with all her 
equipment was destroyed by the resulting fire. 

Thanks to that characteristic promptness of Captain Auut, however, all 
records, reports, and samples obtained to arrival at Pago Pago, American 


FEB. 4, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 45 


Samoa, November 18, 1929, had been mailed or forwarded by freight from that 
port, and all have now been received in Washington. 

The standard instruments for the program in terrestrial magnestism were 
the collimating-compass for declination, the deflector for horizontal intensity, 
and the marine earth-inductor for inclination. Mr. F. M. Souug, one of the 
scientific staff on Cruise VII, had been carrying on experimental work aboard 
during the cruise with the inductor for the determination of horizontal in- 
tensity, and the progress made which will be described elsewhere gives prom- 
ise that this method will ultimately be more reliable than the deflector method. 
The summary of the ship’s log and magnetic observations during May 1928 
to November 1929 shows that in a total of 376 days actually at sea 44,877 sea 
miles had been covered by the vessel, and that the magnetic declination, 
horizontal intensity, and inclination had been determined at 520, 175, and 
174 stations, respectively. Shore observations were also obtained at repeat- 
stations in Iceland, Barbados, Easter Island, Peru, Western Samoa, Guam, 
Japan, and California, including intercomparisons of magnetic standards at 
the following observatories: Seddin (Germany), Huancayo (Peru), Apia 
(Western Samoa), and Kakooka (Japan). 

The preliminary values of the magnetic elements and the average annual- 
changes based on over 100 intersections with previous cruises of the Carnegie 
in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans have been published. The values obtained 
through September 1929 have been utilized by the United States Hydro- 
graphic Office in preparing its revised isomagnetic world-charts for the epoch 
1930 only recently issued. The annual-change values show that the recent 
isomagnetic charts are substantially correct. The agonic line, however, is 
nearer the western coast of South America than indicated on the charts. 
The area of rapid increase in magnetic inclination in the western Caribbean 
and off the coast of northwestern Peru extends westward to the line of no 
annual change passing from the Gulf of Alaska past the neighborhood of 
Samoa. The annual-change values of horizontal intensity are not quite so 
consistent as are those of other elements—a condition to be expected in view 
of the greater difficulty in precise determinations of this element. 

In view of the fact that the Institution’s magnetic-distribution survey of 
the oceans has been practically completed in the work already done by the 
Carnegie and because of the large sum—probably twice the original cost— 
which would be required to construct and equip a second and like non-mag- 
netic ship, the trustees of the Carnegie Institution of Washington have de- 
cided not to replace the Carnegie. It is hoped, however, that steps may be 
initiated through cooperation of oceanographic interests in the United States 
for a ship specially designed for oceanographic researches including occa- 
sional magnetic and electric observations in all oceans in continuation and 
development of the plans which were being executed on the Carnegie. It is 
in this way chiefly that the experience and technique acquired in many years 
of preparation, of development of instruments, and of cruising could be capi- 
talized to benefit future oceanographic research. 

The high esteem and regard for Captain AuLT and his work have been 
demonstrated by the many cablegrams, letters, and resolutions of condolence 
received from all parts of the world. These too have furnished much addi- 
tional evidence of that universal good-will which has, throughout the cruises 
of the Carnegie and her predecessor, the Galilee, so marked these activities. 
(Author’s abstract.) 


46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 3 


F. N. Souue: Oceanography.—The actual work of observation and collection 
in the field of physical oceanography on Cruise VII of the Carnegie consisted of 
the collection of bottom-samples and the measurement of depths, temperatures, 
and salinities. Various bottom-sampling devices were used. Depths were 
measured with thermometers, wire lengths, and sonic-soundings. ‘Tempera- 
tures were measured by means of deep-sea reversing thermometers, and water- 
samples were collected with Nansen water-bottles. Salinities were measured 
by the conductivity method using the Wenner salinity-bridge. The extent of 
the work is described as well as the method of collection and measurement. 
(Author’s abstract.) 

H. W. Grawam: Biology and chemistry—The biological program of the 
Carnegie was designed for the study of the planktonic organisms in the upper 
100-meter layer in the open ocean. Silk nets were towed at the surface, at 
50 meters, and at 100 meters for the capture of qualitative samples, and a 
Pettersson plankton-pump was operated at the same levels to obtain samples 
for quantitative studies. 

The chemical program was confined to a study of the conditions affecting 
the distribution of organisms in the sea. All water-samples collected were 
analyzed for hydrogen-ion concentration, phosphates, silicates, and dissolved 
oxygen. The results in the Pacific show that the waters may be divided into 
three general layers: An upper layer where an active plant and animal life 
is maintained, a middle layer in which a decomposition of organic remains is 
taking place, and a lower layer which represents water that has been conducted 
from polar regions. The upper layer shows high values of dissolved oxygen 
but low values of phosphates, silicates, and hydrogen-ion concentration. 
The middle layer is low in oxygen but high in phosphates and silicates, and is 
relatively less alkaline. The lower layer tends toward conditions at the sur- 
face with again higher values of dissolved oxygen and lower of phosphates, 
silicates, and hydrogen-ion concentration. (Author’s abstract.) 

J. H. Pauu: Meteorology.—An abbreviation of the usual magnetic investi- 
gations made it possible to undertake a complete meteorological program 
during Cruise VII of the non-magnetic vessel Carnegie. In addition to the 
ordinary observations, a study of several special problems in atmospheric 
circulation over the oceans was initiated. Temperature and humidity lapse 
rates from quarter-deck to masthead were recorded automatically by a Hart- 
mann and Braun electric-resistance multi-thermograph with three pairs of 
thermal elements (wet and dry) at various heights. Continuous thermograms 
of sea-surface temperature were obtained by a bulb-and-capillary recorder. 
Continuous humidity measurements were also obtained by a recording aspira- 
tion psychrometer of Negretti and Zambra manufacture for immediate use 
aboard and as a control on the multi-thermograph. These instruments were 
all interecompared with standard thermometers daily. A continuous record 
of atmospheric pressure was kept by an aneroid barograph which was daily 
checked by readings on standard mercurial barometers. In addition to these 
records, soundings of the upper air were made almost daily in the Pacific 
with hydrogen-inflated pilot balloons for direction and velocity of the air 
currents to great heights. Measurements of the rate of evaporation were 
carried out when conditions were favorable. Projected studies in total solar 
and sky radiation, although of great interest, had to be abandoned because 
of the difficulties encountered in working on a vessel with lofty sails and be- 
cause of pressure of other work. 


FEB. 4, 1931 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS _ 47 


The great interest of meteorologists in the work of the Carnegie is due to 
the fact that she sailed in regions from which data is very scanty and was 
working with instruments whose accuracy is known, something one can not 
claim for the commercial vessels from which ocean observations are ordinarily 
obtained. (Author’s abstract.) 

O. H. GisH: Atmospheric electricity—Work on previous cruises of the 
Carnegie has shown not only that satisfactory measurements of the elements 
of atmospheric electricity could be made on a moving vessel at sea but also 
that the electrical state of the atmosphere over ocean areas is little affected 
by local factors such as give a confusing complexity to these phenomena over 
land. It was due to this circumstance that 8. J. Maucuuy was able to con- 
clude, from the comparatively small amount of data obtained on Cruises IV, 
V, and VI, that the regular change during the day of the electric intensity, or 
potential gradient, over the oceans proceeds on a universal schedule every- 
where. This important discovery has been verified by the extensive data 
obtained on Cruise VII. Much encouraged by the outcome of earlier cruises 
a more intensive and elaborate program was planned for Cruise VII, general 
facilities and sundry instrumental features were improved, a photographic 
recorder for potential gradient was installed at Washington (May 1928) and 
a recorder of conductivity at San Francisco (August 1929), an additional in- 
strument for measuring the penetrating radiation and of a different type from 
that used on the Carnegie since 1915 was provided. These and an Aitken 
“‘dust’’ counter constituted the new instrumental equipment. 

As a measure of the work accomplished, the following is significant: Aside 
from over 200 complete daily programs and a number of diurnal-variation 
series (24 consecutive hours each) not completed due to the development of 
bad weather, the number of complete diurnal-variation series with eye-reading 
instruments were obtained as follows: conductivity, 22; ionic-content, 20; 
mobility (indirect), 20; penetrating radiation, 26; condensation nuclei (with 
Aitken dust counter), 15; and with photographic recorders satisfactory com- 
plete daily records of potential gradient, free from negative potential, were 
obtained for 194 days and of conductivity for 56 days, the latter from San 
Francisco to Apia. The diurnal-variation series by eye-readings were ob- 
tained at about twice the rate for previous cruises, and the recorder yielded 
satisfactory data at more than tenfold the rate previously attained by eye- 
reading methods. The gratifying success of this program is in a great meas- 
ure due to the enthusiasm, diligence, and skill of W. C. PARKINSON, senior 
scientific officer, who was in charge of the work on board throughout the 
cruise, and O. W. TorreEson, executive officer, from Washington to San 
Francisco, and 8. E. Forsusu, executive officer, San Francisco to Apia, who 
assisted in some aspects of the work. (Author’s abstract.) 

The papers were discussed by Messrs. Heck, PETERS, SVERDRUP, CURTIS 


and HAWKESWORTH. 
Oscar 8S. Apams, Recording Secretary 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


GEORGE Otis SmitH, Director of the Geological Survey since 1907, re- 
signed December 22, 1930 to accept appointment as Chairman of the Federal 
Power Commission. Watter C. MENDENHALL, formerly chief geologist, has 
been designated acting director by the Secretary of the Interior. T. W. 


48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 3 


STANTON is now acting chief geologist; Joun B. Rensipn, Jr., is acting 
geologist in charge of the section of paleontology and stratigraphy; and H. D. 
Miser has been designated acting chairman of the committee on geologic 
names. Messrs. RensiIpE and WILLIAM W. RuBery have been added to the 
committee. 


H. G. Barser of Roselle, New Jersey, has been appointed a specialist in 
Hemiptera in the Bureau of Entomology and placed in charge of the collec- 
tion in the National Museum. 


Dr. Wn. A. Horrman, of the Porto Rican School of Tropical Medicine, 
and Dr. JosepH Brequazrt, of the Harvard University Medical School, were 
visitors at the Division of Insects of the National Museum in December. 


Dr. CARLETON R. Batu, formerly principal agronomist in charge of the 
Office of Cereal Crops and Diseases, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, went to California early in January to take charge of a 
survey of federal, State, and local (county and city) relationships in the 
diverse agricultural activities in that State. The survey of agriculture, which 
is the first of a series planned to cover these relationships in all human activi- 
ties in California, is conducted by the Bureau of Public Administration of the 
Department of Political Science of the University of California at Berkeley 
with funds from the Rockefeller Foundation. It is hoped to complete and 
publish the agricultural survey in 1931. 


Dr. Davin G. FarIRcHILD, botanist and agricultural explorer now attached 
to the Office of Foreign Plant Introduction of the Department of Agriculture, 
has been awarded the GrorcE RoBeRtT WHITE medal by the Massachusetts 
Horticultural Society. 


@Obituary 


GEORGE GoopING AINSLIE, of Knoxville, Tenn., since 1908 connected with 
the U. 8. Bureau of Entomology, died suddenly in Washington December 19, 
1930. He was born in Rochester, Minn., March 7, 1886. He studied at the 
University of Minnesota, where he was assistant to the State Entomologist 
from 1906 to 1908. During 1909-1910 he was assistant in entomology at 
Clemson College. ) | 


FREDERICK J. PRITCHARD, plant physiologist of the Bureau of Plant In- 
dustry since 1910 and a member of the Academy, died suddenly at his office 
January 13, 1931. He was born at Camanche, Iowa, December 24, 1874. 
He received the degree of bachelor of science from the University of Nebraska 
in 1904 and later served as instructor in botany and bacteriology at the 
North Dakota Agricultural College, where he became assistant professor in 
botany and pathologist at the college experimental station in 1905. In 1907 
he was made assistant in plant breeding at Cornell University and in 1909 
became botanist at the Wisconsin Experimental Station while an agent of the 
Department of Agriculture. He specialized in breeding disease-resisting 
varieties of tomatoes. 


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Phils aoe Soni. sessnsseeesessesssssseeecsttnens a 
ScreNTrIFIC Notes AND , NEWE.«. Ra ete: 


FEBRUARY 19,1931 ~ No. 4 


oe ‘c o; 4 2 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


_C. Wytur Cooxr CHARLES DRECHSLER Hues L. Dryrpen 
U. 8. GHOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OF STANDARDS 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
E. A. GOLDMAN G. W. Strosr 
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GBOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
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BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


Roger C. WELLS 
CHEMICAL SOCIETY 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 21 Frepruary 19, 1931 No. 4 


BOTANY.—A new spiral-orchid from the southern states... Epaar T. 
Wuerry, University of Pennsylvania. 


While studying the soil-reaction relations of native plants in the 
south, I have repeatedly observed in boggy pinelands a spiral-orchid 
(ladies-tresses) not corresponding to any species included in Small’s 
Flora.2 It is closely related to the Slender Spiral-orchid [Jbidium 
gracile (Bigel House)], and search for morphological differences be- 
tween them has not been particularly successful. They are, however, 
more or less distinct in flower color, sepal length, habitat, range, and 
blooming period, and show no evident intergradation. The southern 
plant is accordingly here described as a new species. 


Lateral sepals little exceeding the bend in the green-centered lip; growing in 
moderately acid grassy fields, S. C. to Tex. and northward to N. S. and 
lai lOOMING IM. SMIMMENs 2.6... wk ce ee ne Ibidium gracile 

Lateral sepals decidedly exceeding the bend in the yellow-centered lip; grow- 
ing in strongly acid moist pine-lands, Fla. to Tex. and northward to 
eoneral >. ©.; blooming m-spring: o>... 6... e eee. Ibidium floridanum 


Ibidium floridanum Wherry, sp. nov. 
FIG. 1. 


I. gracili similis, sed floribus vernalibus et labii medio intense flavo. 

Resembling J. gracile; roots several; principal leaves basal, appearing in 
autumn and withering the following summer, more or less petioled, the blades 
elliptic, 1 to 4 em. long and 5 to 20 mm. wide; stem 15 to 40 cm. tall, bearing 
4 to 7 remote scale-like leaves; raceme 3 to 10 em. long, single ranked, often 
strongly spiralled; flowers usually opening in March or April (occasionally as 
early as mid-December or as late as mid-May); color creamy white with the 
middle of the lip deep yellow [in this respect resembling I. plantagineum (Raf.) 
House]; lateral sepals about 5 mm. long, often projecting rather markedly 
beyond the bend in the lip; callosities stubby, 1 mm. long. 


1 Contribution from the Botanical Laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania. 
Received November 26, 1930. 
? Flora of the Southeastern United States. 319. 1903. 


49 


50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 4 


Type in U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,466,427, collected by Edgar T. 
Wherry April 14, 1930, near Loretto, Duval County, Florida. Named from 
the fact that it is widespread and abundant in this state, specimens having 
been seen from the following counties: Broward, Duval, Flagler, Gadsden, 
Lye AG Jackson, Lake, Lee, Marion, Orange, Pinellas, St. Johns, and 

alton. 


Noteworthy specimens are as follows: 
FLORIDA: 

Tampa Bay, Burrows, 1834; the earliest known collection (New York 
Botanical Garden) 


Fig. 1. [bidium floridanum 
Type locality. Natural size. 


Fort Myers, Standley, December 14, 1919; an unusually early blooming 
date (United States National Herbarium) 
Fort Lauderdale to Miami, Small & Carter, February, 1911; the southern- 
most known station (N. Y. B. G.) 
GEORGIA: 
Milledgeville, Boykin, 1836 (N. Y. B. G.). 
Wrightsboro, Chapman (N. Y. B. G.) 
SOUTH CAROLINA: Anderson, Davis, April 9, 1919; the northernmost known 
station (U. 8S. N. H.) 
ALABAMA: Mobile, Mohr, May, 1868 (U.S. N. H.) 
Mississippi: Koshtaw, Tracy, May 20, 1898. (N. Y. B.G.) 
LOUISIANA: Alexandria, Hale, April. (N. Y. B. G.) 
Texas: Houston, Hail, April 1, 1872; the westernmost known station (N. Y. 
B. G.) 


FEB. 19, 1931 KELLUM: NAMES OF THREE FOSSILS 51 


The southernmost occurrences of I. gracile represented among specimens 
seen are: 
SOUTH CAROLINA: Aiken, Ravenel, September, 1869 (U.S. N. H.) 
ALABAMA: Auburn, Pollard & Mazon, July 9-11, 1900 (U. 8. N. H.) 
ARKANSAS: Texarkana, Heller, August, 1898 (N. Y. B. G.) 

The ranges of the two species thus barely overlap. 


PALEONTOLOGY.—Revision of the names of three fossils from the 
Castle Hayne and Trent marls in North Carolina! L. B. KELLUM, 
University of Michigan. (Communicated by C. WYTHE COOKE.) 

In Professional Paper 143 of the United States Geological Survey, 

1926, the writer described a number of new species of invertebrate 

fossils from the Castle Hayne and Trent marls of North Carolina. 

His attention has since been called to the preoccupation of two of the 

specific names used in that paper, and to an earlier description of a 

species which he described and named as new. The names incorrectly 

used in Professional Paper 143 are Cassidulus berry: Kellum, applied 
to an echinoid from the Castle Hayne marl, Terebratula crassa Kellum, 
for a brachiopod from the Trent marl, and Macrocallista minuscula 

Kellum, applied to a mollusk from the Trent marl. New specific 

names are therefore proposed for the first two of these fossils and 

an earlier name replaces the third. 


Cassidulus (Pygorhynchus) sabistonensis Kellum, nom. nov. 


New name for C. berryi Kellum, 1926, described and figured in U. 8. G.S. 
Prof. Paper 143: 15, pl. 1, f. 4-7. The specific name berry was used by M. 
W. TwitcHeEtu in 1915 for a Cassidulus occurring in the Waccamaw mar! at 
Neills Eddy Landing, Cape Fear River, N. C. This was published in U. S. 
G. S. Monograph 54 on The Mesozoic and Cenozoic Echinodermata of the 
United States. As the name is therefore preoccupied in this genus, I propose 
the specific name sabistonensis for the form collected two miles north of 
Jacksonville, Onslow County, N. C. on the farm of E. W. SaBISsTON. 


Terebratula posteriora Kellum, nom. nov. 


New name for 7. crassa Kellum 1926. The specific name crassa is pre- 
occupied in this genus, having been used by D’Arcutac in 1846. The 
writer’s attention was called to this fact by WitL1am Heauny DALL in a 
letter dated October 20, 1926. Dr. Dau says: ‘““Now there is an earlier 
Terebratula crassa of D’Archiac 1846; see Soc. Geol. France mém. 2me ser. 
2, p. 318, pl. 18, figs. 8a-d, 9—according to Carus and ENGLEMANN.”’ 

As this new species from North Carolina has been found at only one local- 
ity and all specimens collected are broken along the anterior margin, the new 
name posteriora is indicative of the part of the shell usually preserved. 


Callista (Callista) nuesensis (Harris) 


Synonym: Macrocallista minuscula Kellum 1926. This species was de- 
scribed and figured by G. D. Harris in 1919 in the Bulletin of American 


1 Received December 17, 1930. 


52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 4 


Paleontology vol. 6, No. 31, p. 186, pl. 48, figs. 4-7, 10, as Meretrix neusensis 
In February 1927, KATHERINE VAN WINKLE PALMER in a monographic study 
of the Veneridae of Eastern America, Vol. 1, No. 5, assigned this species to 
the genus Callista. ‘The specimens figured by these authors are casts of the 
interior and exterior, except for one pseudomorph. ‘The valve figured by the 
writer in Prof. Paper 143, pl. 10, figs. 1-2, is an almost perfectly preserved 
shell. . 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


THE ACADEMY 


236TH MEETING 


The 236th meeting of the AcapEmy was held in the Assembly Hall of the 
Cosmos Club on Thursday, December 18, 1930. About ninety persons were 
present. President Bowie called the meeting to order at 8:15 and introduced 
the speaker of the evening, Prof. A. M. Banta of Brown University and Re- 
search Associate of the Carnegie Institution. 

Program: A. M. Banta: What the crustacean tells us about evolution.— 
Studies in parthenogenetic inheritance in Cladocera have revealed the occur- 
ence of certain mutations—some morphological, others physiological in their 
effects. By means of selection some of these changes have been progressively 
increased or decreased in accord with the direction sought in selection. Since 
selection and return selection have been successful in whichever direction 
attempted, it appears that further genetic changes (new mutations) are 
occurring. Such derivation of two different and relatively stable types from 
a single ancestor seems to represent evolution in its simplest form and it is 
believed that these studies may throw some light upon one of the methods of 
evolution. 

As one of the results of the study of some of the mutant characters in 
Daphnia longispina in sexual reproduction it was found that the characters 
studied were inherited, as anticipated, in typical mendelian fashion. An 
unexpected result of the studies in sexual reproduction was the finding of 
evidence that many physiological mutations occur during parthenogenesis. 
Further studies on this point have shown that after a long and uninterrupted 
succession of parthenogenetic generations, numerous lethal, sublethal and 
other physiological recessive mutations (not present or present in very limited 
numbers in the early parthenogenetic generations) have accumulated during 
the long period of parthenogenesis. ‘This was demonstrated by (1) inbreed- 
ing among the members of a parthenogenetic pure line or clone early in its 
parthenogenetic history and (2) again after the lapse of a large number of 
parthenogenetic generations. Few of these recessive lethal and other phy- 
siological characters manifest themselves in the early inbreeding; many mani- 
fest their presence in the later inbreeding experiments. 

One character, ‘‘thermal,’’ which appeared in the inbreeding of a clone 
long parthenogenetic was of more than usual interest. It is a recessive which 
presumably occurred as a mutation during parthenogenesis but in simplex or 
hetorozygous condition and manifested itself only when it became duplex or 
homozygous in one of the sexually produced offspring derived from inbreeding 
the clone involved. Individuals of this derived thermal clone were more 
resistant to high temperatures, less resistant to lower temperatures, had a 


FEB. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 53 


higher optimum temperature and in other ways manifested their thermal 
character as contrasted with individuals of other related but non-thermal 
clones. Such an origin of thermalness offers the possibility of explanation of 
the origin of thermal races in nature by mutation rather than by a long period 
of acclimatization as we have been wont to assume. (Author’s abstract.) 


237TH MEETING 


The 237th meeting of the AcapEmy, being the 33rd annual meeting, was 
held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 8:15, on Thursday, Janu- 
ary 15, 1931, with 125 persons present. | Vice-President J. M. Coopmr called 
the AcapEmy to order at 8:15 and introduced the retiring President, WILLIAM 
Bow1z, who addressed the AcapEMy upon, Shaping the earth. 

At the close of the address the Vice-President announced the annual 
business meeting and declared a recess, with the request that members of the 
AcapEMy remain. Then President Bowie called the meeting to order. 

The minutes of the 32nd annual meeting were read by the Recording 
Secretary and approved. The report of the Corresponding Secretary, L. B. 
TUCKERMAN, recorded an addition of 31 new members during the year 1930, 
and the election of Dr. Frank WiGGLEsSworTH Cuark, Dr. Wituiam H. 
Houmes and Dr. Letanp O. Howarp as honorary members. The members 
of the AcapEmy stood for a moment in respectful memory of the following 
members who died during the year: 


E. C. Cuincotrr Louis MAcCKALL 
ASAPH HALL WILuiAM A. ORTON 
OLIVER P. Hay DANIEL W. SHEA 


FRANK J. Katz 

The membership was summarized for the year as 18 honorary members, 
3 patrons, 1 life member and 560 members. Total membership 582, of 
whom 381 reside in or near the District of Columbia. The report of the 
Corresponding Secretary was approved. 

The report of the Recording Secretary showed that 8 meetings had been 
held, of which one was a joint meeting with the Geological Society. Seven 
of the meetings were devoted to the series of lectures upon Origin and evolu- 
tion. ‘The names of the speakers and titles were given. The minutes of 
these meetings and abstracts of the addresses given had been prepared for 
publication in the Journal. The report of the Recording Secretary was 
ordered accepted. 

The Treasurer, H. G. Avrers, reported in full upon the investments, receipts 
and expenditures of the Acapemy. ‘The summary showed receipts during the 
year, $7,805.34. Bank balance January 1, 1930, $2,798.70. Total to be 
accounted for, $10,604.04. Disbursements, $9,584.35. Bank balance, 
December 31, 1930, $1,019.47. 


FINANCIAL STATEMENT 


ASSETS | LIABILITIES 
CHS 9 ee ames ce, ek Me $1,019.47 Dwesiprepaidhawne ke as. $20.00 
Imvestments.... 2.5.55. 21,133.87 Subscriptions prepaid..... 294 .70 
Accounts receivable....... 50.00 Accounts Payable (Esti- 
Duestunpaid (2l)/2. 220. 105.00 TAGE) Sees eee! A 350.00 
$22 308.34 Estimated net worth...... 21,643.64 


$22, 308 . 34 


54 JOURNAL OF THE “WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 4 


The report of the Auditors was received and both reports were declared 
approved. 

Professor E. W. Woouarp, Senior Editor, reported for the JourNAL of 
the Acapremy that volume 20 consists of 520 pages, including 85 half-tones 
and 47 line-cuts. It contains 56 original papers occupying 418.6 pages and 
representing 14 different branches of science; the proceedings of the AcADEMY 
and affiliated societies occupy 74.4 pages; notes and news, and obituaries 
occupy 19 pages. The total cost of producing and distributing the Journal 
was $3531.52. The report of the Editor was approved. 

An informal report of the Meetings Committee was given by Dr. W. J. 
HUMPHREYS. 

L. VY. Jupson, Chairman of the Board of Tellers, announced the election 
of the following officers for 1931: 

N. A. Coss, President 

Cyrus ADLER and W. D. COOLIDGE, Nonpesilent Vice-Presidents 

Pau. E. Hows, Corresponding Secretary 

CHARLES THoM, Recording Secretary 

H. G. Avers, Treasurer. 

L. B. Tuckerman and N. M. Jupp, Managers for the term of three 
years ending January, 1934. | 

The Corresponding Secretary then read the nominations for Vice-Presi- 
dents of the AcapEmy as received from the affiliated societies, and the Re- 
cording Secretary was authorized to cast one ballot for the AcapEmy, electing 
the following members as Vice-Presidents: 


Anthropological, Dr. Joun M. CooPEr 
Archaeological, Dr. WALTER HouGH 
Bacteriological, Dr. L. A. Rocurs 
Biological, Dr. ALEXANDER WETMORE 
Botanical, Dr. H. B. HuMpHREY 
Chemical, Dr. R. E. Gipson 
Electrical Engineers, Dr. G. W. VINAL 
Engineers, Mr. W. E. PARKER 
Entomological, Dr. Harotp Morrison 
Foresters, Dr. F. C. CRAIGHEAD 
Geographic, Dr. F. V. CoviLuE 
Geological, Dr. G. R. MANSFIELD 
Helminthological, Dr. Paut BarTscH 
Historical, Mr. ALLEN C, CLARK 
Mechanical Engineers, Mr. H. L. WHITTEMORE 
Medical, Dr. Hpnry C. MacaTEE 
Military Engineers, Colonel C. H. BirpsEYE 
Philosophical, Dr. H. L. Curtis 


At the close of the business meeting, President Bow1E appointed Past- 
President W. J. HumMpHREY to escort President-elect N. A. Cons to the Chair. 
The new President spoke briefly, and there being no further business, de-’ 
clared an adjournment at 10:25. 

CHARLES THom, Recording Secretary. 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 
1007TH MEETING 


The 1007th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, May 10, 
1930, President LAMBERT presiding. 


FEB. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 55 


Program: G. H. KnuLtecan: Measurement of the elastic hysteresis by means 
of tuning forks—The damping of the vibrations of a tuning fork when freely 
suspended is due mainly to elastic hysteresis, provided that the material of 
which the fork is made has negligible elastic afterworking. The damping, 
therefore, can be predicted from pure statical results provided that the stati- 
cal flexure of the forks differs very little from that realized during the free 
vibrations. Statical and dynamical data obtained for a U-shaped fork of 
Armco-iron illustrate this point. This investigation makes it possible to 
measure elastic hysteresis by means of a freely vibrating fork instead of the 
tedious, time-consuming and less sensitive statical method. (Author’s 
abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. TucKERMAN, Brown, and HawKESWORTH. 

L. V. Jupson: New instruments and methods in length measurements of high 
precision.—An extensive program of intercomparisons and calibrations of grad- 
uated meter and decimeter bars has been carried out at the Bureau of Standards 
during the past three years using the new high-precision longitudinal com- 
parator made by the Société Genevoise d’Instruments de Physique. The 
author described the comparator and discussed the measurements made with 
this instrument. He pointed out that in the case of standards with good sur- 
faces and lines, the residuals generally average less than 0.05 micron, and that 
the probable errors of the computed values for the differences in length of 
two standards or for the relative lengths of the subintervals of a standard are 
rather consistently of the order of 0.02 or 0.03 micron. 

The manner by which the corrections to intervals as short as 0.1 mm. are 
determined using as the basis the U. S. national prototype meter was briefly 
outlined. Allusion was made to computations, still in progress, to determine 
the reliability of the several possible methods of obtaining the corrections to 
the subintervals of a graduated scale. 

It was pointed out that the measurement of angles is a natural extension 
of measurements of length as the same general fundamental principles govern 
and somewhat similar equipment is used. With the Bureau’s one-meter 
circular dividing engine several circles have been graduated and one 9-inch 
circle has been tested in some detail using the circle-testing equipment of the 
Bureau. With this latter instrument consistent and repeated settings and 
calibrations are possible to 1 second or better, and in the case of the circle 
just referred to, no errors in the graduation of the circle were found in excess 
of 2 seconds. It was concluded that these two instruments, both made by 
the same Swiss firm as the length comparator, are, like that comparator, in- 
struments of high precision. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. Hryt, Curtis, BROMBACHER, and FERNER. 


1008TH MEETING 


The 1008th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, May 24, 
1930, President LAMBERT presiding. 

Program: Paut R. Hey: The place of reason in nature—Most thinking 
persons, especially scientific men, hold reason in the highest esteem. There 
are, however, several schools of thought that regard it differently. These are 
the philosophy of pessimism, one branch of theology, the pragmatic philosophy 
of Peirce and William James, and the irrational philosophy of Bergson. 

It was pointed out that while reason is undoubtedly equal to all quantita- 
tive demands, there may be criticisms of a qualitative nature made against 
it. (Author’s abstract.) 


56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 4 


1009TH MEETING 


The 1009th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, October 11, 
1930, President LAMBERT presiding. 

Program: M. F. Peters: An investigation of the effectiveness and reliability 
of electric sparks in automotive cgnition.—The effectiveness of ignition sparks 
was determined by measuring the volume (or mass) of hydrogen and of oxy- 
gen which combines at low pressures. The sparks were generated by a 
magneto and an ignition spark coil. It was found that with constant energy 
the amount of reaction increases as the capacitance component of the spark 
increases. The use of a series spark gap may decrease or increase the amount 
of reaction, the effect depending upon the amount and the distribution of 
capacitance in the circuit. So far as the work has progressed, it has been 
found that sparks reported by other investigators as being most efficient for 
igniting lean mixtures cause the largest amount of reaction. Differences 
between the amount of reaction with a magneto spark and an ignition spark 
coil were noted. The method appears to offer a means of determining the 
most efficient spark generator for internal combustion engines as well as 
determining a relation between the character of spark, energy and effective- 
ness in igniting inflammable mixtures. 

Further details of this investigation are given in a report which is to be 
issued as National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Technical Report 
No. 369. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. HuLBURT, WHITE, and SILSBHE. 

W. G. BRoMBACHER. Temperature coefficient of the modulus of rigidity of 
instrument-diaphragm and spring materials.—In cooperation with the National 
Advisory Committee, the Bureau of Standards is determining experimen- 
tally the temperature coefficient of the elastic moduli of commonly used 
spring and diaphragm materials in the temperature range —50° to +50° 
Centigrade. Such data are of particular interest in determining the effect 
of temperature on the performance of air-craft instruments. 

The temperature coefficient m is defined by the relation 

a La Gy 
Tae da 
in which G and G, are the moduli of rigidity at temperatures T°C. and 0°C. 

The description of the apparatus and the methods of procedure were 
presented for determining this coefficient by means of the torsion pendulum. 

Results were given for monel metal, brass, phosphor bronze, coin silver, 
nickel silver, oil-tempered steel, piano wire, chromium-vanadium steel, 
chromium-molybdenum steel and a stainless steel and also the effect of heat 
treatment on the coefficient for a number of the materials. 

A full description of the work is given in National Advisory Committee 
for Aeronautics Technical Report No. 358. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. CANFIELD, HUMPHREYS, WHITE, and MEHL. 


1010TH MEETING 


The 1010th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, October 25, 
1930, PrEsIDENT LAMBERT presiding. 

Program: C. L. GARNER: An outline of the expanded program of geodetic 
work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey—To explain the future program for 
geodetic work, it is necessary to review some of the events leading up to the 
present. In 1925, Congress passed the Temple Act, which authorized the 


FEB. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 57 


completion of the topographic map of the United States in a period of twenty 
years. This Act apparently implied that appropriations would be made from 
year to year, as required to carry on the work. Topographic maps are a result 
of cooperative surveys of the Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Geological 
Survey, the former Bureau performing that part of the work known as control 
surveys, consisting principally of first-order triangulation and leveling. Upto 
this fiscal year, there was no increase in the funds annually made available for 
the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the Bureau did not take any part in the 
program, other than to extend such control surveys as its limited funds per- 
mitted. The appropriations for the current year carried an increase of some 
$240,000 for the execution of control surveys as the Coast Survey’s initial part 
of the program for completing the topographic map of the United States. For 
the most part these control surveys will consist of first-order triangulation and 
leveling, the triangulation being the means of determining the latitudes and 
longitudes of marked stations, and the azimuths and distances between them, 
while the leveling furnishes the elevations of bench marks. 

Approximately 27,000 miles of triangulation, measured along the axes of 
the various schemes, have been completed, and the work under the new pro- 
gram is to divide the open areas by a sufficient number of arcs so that few 
places in the country will be more than twenty-five miles from a triangulation 
station. Schemes of first-order triangulation will generally be about one 
hundred miles apart, while second-order schemes will be run midway between 
the first-order arcs, thus placing the ares or bands of triangulation at intervals 
of about fifty miles. Other arcs of triangulation, at right angles to those 
described, will be run at intervals of about one hundred miles for the purpose 
of coordinating the entire scheme in one rigid framework, for purposes of 
adjustment. This additional work will require about forty thousand miles 
of triangulation, as measured along the line of progress, consisting of about 
equal amounts of first- and second-order work. 

During the earlier work, arcs of triangulation were extended mostly over 
mountainous or rolling country where long lines could be used to extend con- 
trol as rapidiy as possible with the cash outlays available. The difficulty of 
transporting the parties and equipment into isolated sections also contributed 
toward the same end. As a result long lines over 100 miles in length were 
very ordinary, while some were in excess of 170 miles. After the Atlantic 
and Pacific Coasts were connected and there were other ares sufficient for 
adjustment purposes, long lines were no longer important. Further than 
this, with the extension of triangulation into the more settled and developed 
regions, which are also on comparatively level ground, it is impossible because 
of the curvature of the earth, and in many places because of tall trees, to 
secure long lines even though it were desired. Considering the fact that 
schemes with short lines do not decrease the accuracy of triangulation when 
extended across country, and to the further fact that short lines have the 
effect of placing a larger number of stations in any unit area than where long 
lines are used, the value of the stations to local engineers or surveyors is in- 
creased correspondingly. It is difficult and expensive for a local engineer to 
connect to a triangulation station which is a considerable distance from any 
particular project he has in mind, while it is comparatively simple and inex- 
pensive to make connections to stations which are nearby. For that reason, 
the lengths of future lines of first and second order triangulation will be held 
to an average of between 10 and 12 miles, with few lines exceeding 15 miles 
in length except in mountainous regions where due to topography and 


58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 4 


transportation it may be impracticable to hold to this lower limit. In such 
cases it may be necessary to allow a few lines with lengths of about 25 miles. 

Recent accomplishments of first-order triangulation are the completion of 
five moderately short arcs during the summer of 1930, as follows: From La 
Crosse to Fond du Lac, Wis., from Columbus, Nebr., to Joliet, Ill., and three 
arcs radiating east, north and west from Cairo, IIl., to Nashville, Tenn., to 
the 39th-parallel triangulation in the vicinity of Belleville, Ill., and to Poplar 
Bluff, Mo., respectively. Other arcs to be started in the near future and due 
to be completed by June 30, 1931, are from Fort Smith, Ark., south to Port 
Arthur, Tex., from Shreveport, Tee. to Forest, Miss., and from Mobile, Ala., 
closely ‘paralleling the Gulf Coast, to Corpus Christi, Tex. All of this work 
is particularly important because of the need for an adjustment of the triangu- 
lation network of the United States east of the 98th meridian. An adjust- 
ment of the triangulation net of the United States west of the 98th meridian 
was made in 1927. ‘These two adjustments, when completed, will be based 
on a large network strong and securely tied together at frequent intervals, 
and will cover the entire country with the most reliable positions obtainable. 
These will be held final, and on all future arcs of triangulation it will merely 
be necessary to adjust them between the junction points with ares of the 
above framework. 

It should be said that in first-order triangulation average triangle closures 
of 1 second or less are required, while the maximum allowable closure for a 
single triangle is 3 seconds. On second-order work the average closure is 
required to be 3.0 seconds or less, while the maximum closure of a single 
triangle should not exceed 8.0 seconds. ‘The experience of over one hundred 
years of observations shows clearly that where maximum single triangle 
closures are not allowed to exceed 3 seconds, the average closure for a season 
will very seldom exceed 1.0 seconds, and consequently this criteria is used in 
classifying the order of triangulation. 

In the extension of first-order levels, the same principle holds regarding 
distribution of marks as with the triangulation stations, that is, for few places 
in the country to be further than 25 miles from a bench mark. Lines will be 
run largely along the important lines of communication, such as railroads and 
highways, in areas which have not been given attention before. Bench 
marks and triangulation stations are of most value when they are readily 
accessible at or near the highways, and while it is not practicable to establish 
all triangulation stations along a railroad or highway, it is entirely possible 
to so locate the bench marks, and this has been the custom throughout the 
history of leveling. Incidentally it may be mentioned that formerly the 
leveling of the country was extended almost wholly along the railroads. This 
was because of the easy grades encountered and the resultant increased prog- 
ress and correspondingly reduced cost of the work. As leveling is extended 
into the intermediate regions, however, it is seen that railroads will, in the 
majority of cases, not be available, and it will be necessary to extend the lines 
along highways or even totally unimproved roads.. Work of this character 
is slow and expensive as the grades are much steeper than along railroads, 
and this requires many more instrument stations and slows up the work. At 
the same time, the marks are perhaps of more use to the average citizen than 
in other areas, as in many cases the lines will be along avenues of development 
where engineering or surveying projects are in operation and where the eleva- 
tions of the marks will be of immediate use. 

Approximately 60,000 miles of first and second order leveling will be re- 
quired to complete the program. First-order lines will be run at intervals of 


FEB. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 09 


about 100 miles, while such intervals will each be divided by one line of second- 
order levels. 

It is believed that this program will be complete in about twelve years. 
(Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. Lirrrock, Priest, Bowirn, RAPPLEYE, CANFIELD, 
HumpuHreys and MArMER. 

F. S. Borpren: Recent developments in the hydrographic work of the Coast 
and Geodetic Survey with special reference to the survey of Georges Bank. 

Of the four major classes of transportation, namely: rail, water, highway 
and air, it can be said that the first mentioned is the only one which has 
reached real standardization. The highway is making rapid strides in that 
direction but it will probably be many years before water transportation 
reaches the high degree of standardization the railroad now enjoys. It will 
be still longer in the case of the newest means of travel, that by air. 

The question may well arise as to why water transportation, one of the. 
earliest methods known to man, has not yet reached the degree of standard- 
ization of the railroad and that which we can foresee for the highway. One 
of the reasons would seem to be that the ocean liner has no well defined path 
to follow along the shortest practicable route such as has the express train or 
the automobile. Instead, on each of its journeys a new path must be deter- 
mined and, under favorable conditions, this is seldom the shortest practic- 
able route and quite frequently not the safest. If an automobilist passes a 
cross-road onto which he should have turned off, he is only slightly incon- 
venienced, but should the navigator at some critical point along his route, 
determine and steer an erroneous course, the result would undoubtedly be 
disaster with possible loss of life. 

The principal aid to the navigator in keeping his vessel on the track which 
he desires to follow and on one which will avoid the numerous dangers that 
beset his path, is his chart. The extent to which his chart serves this purpose 
depends on the detail and accuracy of the information shown thereon and, 
in this respect, much is demanded by the present-day scientifically equipped 
navigator. 

In order to bring our charts into keeping with the resources of modern 
science, it has been necessary to devise new and improved methods of survey- 
ing those extensive areas which lie out of sight of land but still fall on the 
shelves which border our coasts. On the Pacific Coast these methods have 
been well standardized and rapid progress is now being made toward the 
completion of a new series of standard charts. On the Atlantic Coast the 
standardization of methods has been somewhat slower, but this process is 
now reaching the final stage and we can foresee within a few years the same 
rapid progress that is being made on the Pacific Coast. 

I hope to be able with the aid of a few slides to show the reason for the 
demand for more adequate surveys, and the steps we are taking to meet this 
demand, some of the difficulties encountered, and finally an outline of the 
methods actually employed on one of our most recent projects. 


Slide No. 1 


The old and the new—a month or more to cross the Atlantic as compared 
with a few days—wooden sailing vessels drawing 15 feet as compared with 
steam vessels of steel drawing 40 feet. Aids to navigation, very limited, as 
compared with those of the modern liner having precise sextants, gyro com- 
passes, electric logs, echo soundings, radio bearings and powerful lighthouses. 
And, in order to obtain the maximum usefulness and the highest degree of 
security from these present-day resources, the liner must have a modern chart. 


60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 4 


Slide No. 2 


Echo Sounding—Proceeding at full speed, the modern ocean liner has a 
continuous record of the depths over which it is passing. If the chart shows 
the configuration of the bottom accurately and in sufficient detail, these 
records can be used in fixing the position of the ship. On the other hand, if 
the chart does not portray a true contour map of the ocean bottom, the 
position of the ship becomes uncertain. This uncertainty means greater 
precautions, slower voyages, delayed arrivals and increased operating ex- 
penses. This new device has had considerable to do with the increased 
demand not only for more accurate and more detailed surveys but also for 
the extension farther seaward of such surveys. 


Slide No. 3 


_ QOne type of echo sounding device—the Fathometer—and the one used 
principally on the surveying vessels of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 
This slide shows the recording part of the instrument. Into it comes the 
impulse of the echo from the ocean bottom transmitted from an oscillator on 
the vessel. The impulse is received by a hydrophone in the bottom of the 
vessel and is amplified sufficiently to cause a red flash on the revolving dial, 
measuring the elapsed time of sound travel to and from the ocean floor, but 
calibrated to read the depth directly in fathoms. The dial of this particular 
instrument revolves at a speed of 246 revolutions per minute corresponding 
to a velocity of sound of 820 fathoms (4920 feet). 


Slide No. 4 


The velocity of sound in salt water varies over an extreme range of from 
about 790 fathoms to about 870 fathoms per second depending on the tem- 
perature, salinity and pressure of the water through which the sound travels. 
Roughly, it may be stated that the velocity increases 0.2 of one per cent for 
every increase of 1° in the temperature, is augmented 0.11 per cent for every 
100 meter depth and increases 0.1 per cent for every 1 per cent increase in 
the salinity. On any surveying project, sufficient measurements are made 
of the salinity and temperature at various depths to correct the echo soundings. 


Slide No. 5 


Comparison between the frequency and speed of echo and hand-lead 
soundings. | 


Slide No. 6 


Installation on the Lydonia—The Fathometer there provides both the navi- 
gator and the hydrographer with an excellent method of obtaining depth, 
but the concern of the hydrographer does not stop here. For every practical 
purpose, a charted sounding must be considered as having three dimensions. 
A measurement of depth is of value not simply in proportion to the accuracy 
with which it was made, but equally in proportion to the accuracy with which 
we locate the point on the ocean’s surface from which it was made. A group 
of accurate soundings plotted on the chart in their correct positions relative 
to each other will give an accurate indication of a submarine valley or any 
other characteristic feature suitable for use by the navigator in fixing his 
position. The same soundings incorrectly placed with reference to one 
another may give a seriously erroneous picture. Let us consider that the 
depth determination furnishes us with the first dimension of our sounding and 


FEB. 19, 1931 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 61 


turn to the second and third dimensions, it being assumed that we are out of 
sight of land and can not depend on shore objects to fix the sounding vessel’s 
position. 


Slide No. 7 


Again we make use of the transmission of sound through water, in this 
ease horizontally. Here we have a depth bomb of TNT fired from astern of 
the vessel. The sound travels to a hydrophone planted near the shore, the 
position of which is accurately known. Here the impulse is picked up and 
amplified and automatically and instantaneously passes through the shore 
station back to the vessel by radio. The time interval, as recorded on the tape 
of the sounding vessel’s chronograph, between the reception of the bomb and 
_ the returning signal from the shore station plus the time it has taken the 
sound to travel from the bomb to the ship’s hydrophone gives a measure of 
the distance between the bomb and the shore station hydrophone—and we 
have our second dimension of the sounding taken at the time the bomb was 
dropped. 


Slide No. 8 


And adding a second shore station to our equipment, we, in the same way, 
obtain the third dimension of our sounding. 


Slide No. 9 


Shore Station on the Pacific Coasi—Unfortunately we can not boast of any 
such shore stations on the Atlantic Coast or that we have thus far been able 
to employ the exact methods of obtaining the second and third dimension that 
work so successfully on the Pacific Coast and in Alaska. However, we 
learned very definitely during the past summer that the method can be 
used, at least off the New England Coast, provided floating stations are 
substituted for the shore stations and are anchored in sufficient depths of 
water. The slides from now on, in so far as the hydrophone station is con- 
ene, pertain to a floating station rather than to a shore station as shown 

ere. 


Slides Nos. 10-27 


Georges Bank Project—Showing methods employed in the survey of Georges 
Bank and a slide of the submarine valley found along its southeastern edge. 
The valley is 2 miles wide and cuts back into the shelf for a distance of 8 
miles. It makes an ideal submarine landmark for westbound transatlantic 
steamers approaching Georges Bank. (Author’s abstract.) 

‘4 Discussed by Messrs. Hick, CANFIELD, Curtis, DorsEy, Hazarp, and 
ERAN. 
Oscar 8. Apams, Recording Secretary 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


Dr. Davin Wuits, senior geologist of the Geological Survey and home 
secretary of the National Academy of Sciences, was awarded the Penrose 
Medal of the Society of Economic Geologists at the Toronto meeting in 
December, 1930. This medal is given not oftener than once every three 
years “in recognition of unusually original work in the earth sciences.” 


62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 4 


Miss Frances Densmore, Bureau of Ethnology, who has been in Wash- 
ington for a few weeks, has left for Florida to study the music and songs of 
the Seminole Indians. 


Dr. Norman L. Bowen of the Geophysical Laboratory has been awarded 
the Bigsby medal of the Geological Society (London) in recognition of the 
value of his study of the physical chemistry of igneous rocks. The last 
recipient of the medal in the United States was the late Coartes D. WaucoTtT 
who was awarded it in 1895. 


CORRECTIONS TO 1930 “RED BOOK” 


The following corrections to the list of AcapEMy members are 
arranged, so that if desired they may be cut out and pasted in the 
Red Book. 


ASHLEY, George H., State Capitol, Harrisburg, Pa. A Gl 
BARTLETT, Edward P., Dupont Ammonia Corp., Wilmington, Del. A 
BROWN, Thomas B., 155 Scituate St., Arlington, Mass. AP 
CURTIS, Heber, D., Detroit Observatory, Ann Arbor, Mich. A 
HARPER, D. R., 3rd, 222 Gladstone Rd., Pittsburgh, Pa. A 
HRDLICKA, Ales, National Museum. 2900 Tilden St. A An M 
HUNNEWELL, F. A., Coast Guard. 14 W. Irving St., Ch. Ch., Md. AE 
JACOBY, Henry S., 3000 Tilden St. AE 
JARDINE, William M., Tower Bldg., 14th & K Sts. The Mayflower. A 
The following name appears twice: 

LOHR, L. R., 160 N. LaSalle St., Chicago, IIl. A 
In place of the first, substitute: 

LOEB, Leo, Wash. Univ. School of Medicine, St. Louis, Mo. A 
MICHELSON, Truman, Smithsonian Institution. 1710 Que St. A An 
PIENKOWSKY, Arthur T., Bureau of Standards. 2923 Tilden St. AE 
PINCHOT, Gifford, Milford, Pike County, Pa. ASBE 
SCHULTZ, Eugene S., Bureau of Plant Industry A 
SHAPOVALOV, M., University of California, Berkeley, Calif. A 
SMITH, Charles Meldrum, 424 Allison St. A 


SMITH, George Otis, Federal Power Commission. 2137 Bancroft Place. AE G Gl 


STEBINGER, Eugene, 710 Edificio Banco Boston, Buenos Aires, Argentina A Gl 


WHERRY, Edgar T., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. 


AC Gl 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 21 Marca 4, 1931 No. 5 


BOTANY .—Plants new to Arizona. (An annotated list of species added 
to the recorded flora of the state or otherwise interesting).* By THOMAS 
H. Kearney, Bureau of Plant Industry. 


Arizona has a rich and remarkable flora. The great diversity of 
natural conditions produces a corresponding diversity of life forms and 
floral elements. There could scarcely be a greater contrast than that 
between the Sonoran flora of the hot deserts of the southwestern part 
of the state, only a few hundred feet above sea-level, where cacti and 
other xerophytic forms predominate, and the arctic-alpine flora of the 
summit of San Francisco Mountain, with an altitude of nearly 13,000 
feet. The mean annual rainfall ranges from 3.5 inches at Yuma to 
30 inches at Crown King in Yavapai County. 

Several floral provinces meet and overlap in Arizona. On the grass- 
covered plains of the eastern section, there are numerous species 
characteristic of the Great Plains region from Kansas to Texas. The 
Rocky Mountain flora is well represented on the higher mountains. 
The Great Basin region of Utah and Nevada shares many of its species 
with northern Arizona. Constituents of the flora of the Mohave 
Desert region are found in large number near the western edge of 
the state. In southwestern Arizona there are many species that occur 
elsewhere only along and near the Gulf of California. A large number 
of Mexican and Central American species, more or less tropical in their 
affinities, just cross the southern border of the state. There are 
even, in southeastern Arizona, a few species whose main center of 
distribution is the Atlantic and Mississippi Valley States. Finally, 
of course, many Old World species have become established as weeds. 

During the past five years, extensive collections of the flowering 
plants and ferns of Arizona have been made by members of the Bureau 
of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, whose headquarters 


*Received February 6, 1931. 
63 


64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5 


are the U. 8. Field Station at Sacaton, on the Gila River, some 45 
miles southeast of Phoenix. This group includes George J. Harrison, 
Robert H. Peebles, Harold F. Loomis, Harold J. Fulton, Chalmers J. 
King, and the writer.. Frank A.Thackery, A. R. Leding, and M. French 
Gilman of the Bureau of Plant Industry and W. J. Osborn of the 
Forest Service, with headquarters at Flagstaff, also have contributed 
materially to the Sacaton collection. 

A list of the flowering plants and ferns of Arizona, with keys to 
the families, genera and species, is being compiled by Ivar Tidestrom 
of the Bureau of Plant Industry, with the collaboration of other 
botanists. The time therefore seems opportune to publish notes on 
plants collected by the Sacaton botanists, many of which, so far as the 
writer can ascertain, have not been recorded hitherto as occurring in 
Arizona. Our collections have added some 55 species and varieties to 
the known flora of the state, of which 18 were found only in the region 
lying between the Gila River and the Mexican frontier and between 
the Baboqtivari Mountains and the Colorado River. This is the 
country of the Papago Indians and includes much of the territory 
known to the early Spanish missionaries as ‘“Papaguerfa.”’ The addi- 
tions to the flora discovered in this region are chiefly species that occur 
in Lower California and the adjacent Colorado Desert of California 
or in Sonora and other parts of Mexico. The relative inaccessibility 
of much of this area and the rarity of sufficient precipitation to permit 
the growth of plants make it likely that other species not known to 
belong to the flora of Arizona and of the United States will be discovered 
there in the future. 

In our explorations of southwestern Arizona we have observed a 
tendency to the rapid eastward spread of species mainly characteristic 
of the region near the mouth of the Colorado River. Such are Aristzda 
californica, Sphaeralcea orcuttii, Asclepias erosa, and Palafoxia linearis. 
All of these plants have readily disseminated seeds. Since they have 
been noticed chiefly along the highway from Yuma to Phoenix, it may 
be conjectured that paved roads and automobile traffic have aided 
their dispersal. , 

The area centering in the Pinal Mountains, a few miles north of the 
Gila River, has yielded several additions to the recorded flora. The 
southeastern part of the state, between the Baboquivari Mountains 
and the New Mexican boundary, has been much explored by other 
botanists, but we have found there a good number of species not hith- 
erto recorded as belonging to the Arizona flora. The area north of the 
Gila River, between longitude 112° and the Colorado River, like the 


MARCH 4, 1931 KBARNEY: PLANTS NEW TO ARIZONA 65 


southwestern corner of the state, is difficult of access and is charac- 
terized by very low and very sporadic precipitation. Exploration of 
this region on the rare occasions when conditions have been favorable 
to plant growth, is likely to reveal the presence of many species of 
southeastern California and southern Nevada that have not yet been 
collected in Arizona. 

Ten of the 99 species and varieties listed in this paper are not known 
to occur elsewhere than in Arizona. The principal distribution of the 
others, outside this state, may be summarized as follows: 


Pacific coast region (Washington to Lower California).............. 10 
Salnernin deserts (Colorado, Mohave, ete.)...........6.20.00000. 6 
Gulf of California region (Lower California, western Sonora)....... 14 
Mexico (not confined to the preceding region) and southward..... oo 
Rio Grande region (western Texas, southern New Mexico and ad- 
ree erste) ites 4 Act, Vantaa | ak pattie ue tee Cen a & corde ise ig. 4 
Pane ICWPOM yest eg ths lth Mids ake eae dais HABE ORs 4 
enone mone Mansas, Texas, 660.) ii. 2. 6 4.8 Pac beeen Gils ok es 2 
pelemuceana. Mississippi Valley States. . 2). ec. s!la. ote. oe a lenee 5 
Oiorld-and indigenous in Arizona... ... 2.0. es fo ee ee 1 
Siaavoriad (introduced Species)... 2... snk oko elec D8 oe che ie wees 9 
Mrapiea) America (introduced species)... . 0.2... 0.622... de see 1 


_ It will be noted that the distribution outside of Arizona, of nearly 
half of the species and varieties listed is in the Gulf of California 
region or elsewhere in Mexico and tropical America. ‘This does not 
signify a corresponding preponderance of these elements in the flora 
of Arizona, but merely that our explorations have been carried on 
largely in portions of the state where they are likely to be found in the 
greatest numbers. 

Fascinating problems in plant geography are encountered in studying 
the Arizona flora. One of these is the occurrence, well toward the 
center of the state and especially in the Pinal Mountain region, of 
species identical with or very closely related to constituents of the 
chaparral of the mountains and coast of California. Such are Dryop- 
teris arguta (Kaulf.) Watt, Grossularia quercetorum (Greene) Cov. & 
Britt., Cercocarpus douglasit Rydb., Rhus ovata Wats., Rhamnus cali- 
fornica Eschs. (represented by R. ursina Greene), Rhamnus crocea 
tlicifolia (Kellogg) Greene, Ceanothus integerrimus H. & A. (represented 
by C. mogollonicus Greene), and Lonicera interrupta Benth. None of 
these are found in the intervening deserts. Another remarkable case 
of interrupted range is afforded by a few species having their main 
center of distribution in the Atlantic States and the Mississippi Valley 
and occurring also in southern Arizona but apparently not in west- 


66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5 


ern Texas and southern New Mexico. Examples are: Phytolacca 
americana L., Crotalaria sagittalis L., Clitoria mariana L., Isanthus 
brachiatus’ (L.) B. 8. P., and Galiuwm pilosum Ait. 

In the following list, species and varieties which, so far as the writer 
knows, have not been recorded in a previous publication as occurring 
in Arizona are indicated by a single asterisk. Double asterisks indi- 
cate that the plant is believed to be new to the recorded flora of the 
United States, also. Four of the species listed were described for the 
first time from our collections. None of these is known to occur outside 
of Arizona. ‘The assistance of authorities who have identified some 
of the plants, as mentioned in the footnotes, is acknowledged with 
gratitude. 


POLY PODIACEAE! 


ASPLENIUM PALMERI Maxon. Collected on the western side of the Babo- 
quivari Mts. in Pima Co. by Harrison in 1927. This is considerably farther 
west than the previously known station in Arizona, the Mule Mts. in Cochise 
Co., where it was collected by L. N. Goodding. This fern also occurs in 
the Organ Mts., New Mexico.? It is chiefly a Mexican species, of rare oc- 
currence in the United States. 

CETARACH DALHOUSIAE (Hook.) C. Chr. (Asplenium alternans Hook). 
Collected on the western side of the Baboquivari Mts. by M. French Gilman, 
thus extending the known range considerably to the west, the only previously 
recorded stations in Arizona, both in Cochise Co., being the Huachuca Mts. 
(J. H. Ferris) and the Mule Mts. (L. N. Goodding). This fern is not known 
to occur anywhere else in the western hemisphere, but is found in the Hima- 
layas and in Abyssinia. This remarkable distribution has been discussed 
by W. A. Poyser, J. H. Ferris, and W. N. Clute.’ 

CHEILANTHES LENDIGERA (Sav.) Sw. Collected by Peebles and Loomis 
in Cave Creek Canyon, Chiricahua Mts., Cochise Co. The only locality 
previously known for this fern in Arizona and in the United States is the 
Huachuca Mts., in Cochise Co., where it was collected by J. G. Lemmon 
and by M. E. Jones. The species is widely distributed in tropical America. 

CHEILANTHES VILLOSA Davenp. Collected in the Sierra Estrella, south of 
Phoenix, Maricopa Co., by Kearney, Harrison, Peebles, and Loomis in 
1926. ‘This is considerably farther west than the stations previously known 
in Arizona, which are the Santa Catalina, Santa Rita, Huachuca, and Chiri- 
cahua Mts.4 Occurs also in New Mexico, western Texas, Chihuahua, and 
Coahuila. 


1 Tdentified by W. R. Maxon, who supplied much of ithe information given in the 
notes on this family. 

2 W.R. Maxon in Am. Fern Journ, 18: 105. 1921. 

3 Fern Bull. 19: 33-42. 1911. See also W. R. Maxon in Am. Fern Journ. 3: 110. 
1913. Similar distribution of another fern was noted by C. W. Hope (Bull. Torr. Club 
26: 58-62. 1919), who considers Asplenium glenniei Baker, found in the Huachuca Mts., 
Arizona, and in Mexico, to be identical with A. exiguum Bedd., of India and southern 
China. 

4See W. R. Maxon in Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. $1: 142-4. 1918. 


MARCH 4, 1931 KEARNEY: PLANTS NEW TO ARIZONA 67 


*DRYOPTERIS ARGUTA (Kaulf.) Watt. Collected by Harrison in Devils 
Canyon, near Superior, in Pinal Co., in 1926. Known previously to occur 
only from southern California to western Oregon.® 

PHANEROPHLEBIA AURICULATA Underw. Collected on the west side of the 
Baboquivari Mts., Pima Co., by A. R. Leding in 1925, and previously in 
the same mountains by Forrest Shreve. These stations are considerably 
farther west than any known hitherto for this fern in Arizona. 

WoopsIA PLUMMERAE Lemmon. Collected near Prescott, Yavapai Co., 
by Harrison in 1927, extending the known range considerably to the north- 
west. 


POACHAE 


TRIPSACUM LANCEOLATUM Rupr.® (7. lemmoni Vasey). Collected by 
Harrison and Kearney in the Mule Mts. near Bisbee, Cochise Co., and by 
Loomis near Patagonia, Santa Cruz Co. These are apparently the only 
collections of this grass in Arizona and in the United States, except that of 
Lemmon in the Huachuca Mts. (type of T. lemmonz). ‘The species is widely 
distributed in Mexico. , 

**PANICUM LEPIDULUM Hitche. & Chase.’ Collected by Kearney and 
Harrison near Nogales, Santa Cruz Co:., in 1927. Mrs. Chase informed the 
writer that ours was the first collection of this species in Arizona and in the 
United States. It was previously known only from Mexico (Chihuahua, 
Durango, and near Mexico City). 

**SCHISMUS BARBATUS (L.) Chase (S. marginatus Beauv.).’ Thoroughly 
naturalized and apparently spreading rapidly in Maricopa and Pinal counties; 
first collected by,Loomis and Peebles in 1926. This Old World grass had not 
previously been reported as occurring in the United States. 


CYPERACEAE 


*CYPERUS WRIGHTII Britton.’ Collected by Kearney and Harrison in 
the Huachuca Mts., Cochise Co., and by Kearney and Fulton in the Santa 
Rita Mts., Pima Co., apparently for the first time in Arizona. The range 
of the species, as previously known, is Texas, southern New Mexico, and 
Chihuahua. 


RAFFLESIACEAE 


PILOSTYLES THURBERI Gray. ‘This interesting little parasite on the stems 
of a leguminous plant, Parosela emoryi: (Gray) Heller, was found in 1930 by 
Harrison and Kearney and by Peebles and Loomis in considerable abundance 
between the north end of the Gila Mts. and the Gila River, Yuma County, 
beginning to flower about the first of April. The locality is probably very 
near the place where the plant was first discovered by Thurber in 1852. There 
seems to be no record of the occurrence of P. thurberz elsewhere east of the 
Colorado River, but J. B. Norton told the writer that he had found the plant 
in the Colorado Desert, Calif., in 1927. 


5 For the characters distinguishing D. arguta from the related D. filiz-mas see W. R. 
Maxon in Am. Fern Journ. 11: 3, 4. 1921. 

6 Identified by J. R. Swallen. 

7 Identified by Agnes Chase. 

8 Identified by A. 8. Hitchcock. 

° Identified by N. L. Britton. 


68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5 


POLYGONACEAE 


*POLYGONUM CAMPORUM Meisn.!° Collected by Kearney, Harrison, and 
Peebles at a roadside in the Colorado River Valley below Yuma. In a letter 
to the writer, Dr. Small states that our plant ‘‘seems to be most closely related 
to Polygonum camporum, where I would place it, at least for the time being. 
It is true the akene is rather small, but we have never had enough material 
of P. camporum to properly understand the species.”” The range of the species, 
as previously known, is Nebraska to Louisiana and New Mexico, and in South 
America. Apparently it has not previously been collected in the United 
States west of El Paso, Texas. 

*PERSICARIA FUSIFORMIS Greene. Collected by Kearney at the edge of 
running water in Sabino Canyon, Santa Catalina Mts., Pima Co. This is 
apparently the first collection in Arizona, although the species was described 
from specimens collected on the Colorado River, in California. The Arizona 
specimens have less pointed akenes than the California specimens, but other- 
wise are similar. 


NYCTAGINACEAE 


*MIRABILIS JALAPA L. Collected by Kearney and Harrison.in Cave Creek 
Canyon, Chiricahua Mts., Cochise Co., in 1929, where the plants were growing 
wild although possibly as an escape from cultivation, this being the common 
four-o’clock of gardens. Apparently the first collection in Arizona, the pre- 
viously known range of the species in the wild being from southern Texas 
through Mexico to Central and South America. 

*BOERHAAVIA GRACILLIMA Heimerl. Collected in Baboquivari Canyon, 
Pima Co., by Loomis, and previously by M. E. Jones in the Huachuca Mts. 
The recorded range of the species is southwestern Texas and southern New 
Mexico to Oaxaca and Lower California. 


PHYTOLACCACEAE 


*PHYTOLACCA AMERICANA L. (P. decandra L.) Collected in shaded alluvial 
ground along the Sonoita near Patagonia, Santa Cruz Co. Although the 
plants grew wild, their progenitors may have been introduced by man, this 
species, the common pokeberry of the eastern states, not having previously 
been known to occur farther west than Texas. 


PORTULACACEAE 


*CALANDRINIA AMBIGUA (Wats.) Howell. (C. sesuvioides Gray). This 
species was collected by Peebles and Harrison in 1928 near Dome, Yuma 
County, and previously in Arizona, probably by J. J. Thornber, but ap- 
parently the plant has not been recorded as occurring outside the Colorado 
Desert, in California. 


SILENACEAE 


*SILENE ANGLICA L. (S. gallica L.). Collected by Peebles on hillsides 
along Salt River below the Roosevelt Dam in Maricopa Co. and previously, 
probably by J. J. Thornber, in the Santa Rita Mts., Pima Co. Although ex- 
tensively naturalized on the Pacific Coast, this European plant apparently 
has not been recorded as occurring in Arizona. 


10 Identified by J. K. Small. 


MARCH 4, 1931 KEARNEY: PLANTS NEW TO ARIZONA 69 


*SaPONARIA OFFICINALIS L. This Old World species, thoroughly natural- 
ized in many parts of the United States, is well established in the vicinity of 
Prescott, where a peculiar form with inflated calyx was collected by Fulton. 


BRASSICACEAE 


*LEPIDIUM DRABA L. Collected near Prescott by Loomis, presumably for 
the first time in Arizona. Introduced from Europe and naturalized in many 
parts of the United States. 

*SISYMBRIUM IRIO L. Abundantly naturalized near Sacaton and Casa 
Grande, Pinal Co., and in the Salt River Valley, Maricopa Co. Introduced 
from Europe. 

*LYROCARPA COULTERI Hook. & Harv. Found by us at several stations 
between Maricopa and Yuma, growing among bushes in partial shade. There 
are specimens in the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University collected in 
Arizona by Palmer and either in Arizona or northern Sonora by Pringle, but 
the occurrence of the species in this state seems not to have been definitely 
recorded hitherto. The range outside of Arizona is California (Colorado 
Desert) to Lower California and Sonora. 


CRASSULACEAE 


GRAPTOPETALUM ORPETTII E. Walther.!! Collected in 1926 by Harrison 
on the high plateau between Superior and Miami, in Pinal Co. The type of 
the species is a subsequent collection by Ed. Howard, at or near the same 
locality. 

*TILLAEA ERECTA H. & A. Collected by Peebles and Loomis in Baboqui- 
vari Canyon, Pima Co., and by Kearney, Harrison, and Peebles in Paradise 
Valley, Maricopa Co., where it was rather abundant at a roadside. This 
represents apparently the first collection of any species of the genus in Arizona. 
The range of 7’. erecta, as previously recorded, is Oregon to Lower California, 
and in Chile. 


GROSSULARIACEAE 


*GROSSULARIA QUERCETORUM (Greene) Coville & Britton.2 Collected by 
Harrison and Fulton on Superstition Mountain, northern Pinal Co., at an 
elevation of about 4,000 feet. Previously collected by J. J. Thornber in the 
Sierra Estrella, Maricopa Co., and on Superstition Mountain by L .N. Good- 
ding. These Arizona collections, as Dr. Coville points out, greatly extend 
the range of the species which previously had been known only from middle 
California to Lower California. 


ROSACEAE 


*CERCOCARPUS DOUGLASII Rydb.¥ Common in Devils Canyon near Su- 
perior, Pinal Co., where it was collected by Kearney and Harrison. This 
locality is far outside the previously recorded range of the species, which is 
California and southern Oregon, near the coast. 


11 Walther, Eric. A new species of Graptopetalum. Journ. Cactus and Succulent 
Soc. Amer. 1: 183-186. 1930. 

12 Identified by Frederick V. Coville. 

13 Tdentification confirmed by P. A. Rydberg. 


70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5 


MIMOSACEAE 


MIMOSA LAXIFLORA Benth." The first collection of this species in Arizona 
and in the United States appears to have been by the late Professor J. Arthur 
Harris at Quijotoa, in the Papago Indian Reservation, Pima Co., in 1925. 
Harrison subsequently found it to be rather abundant in a wash near Sells, 
(Indian Oasis), in the same reservation, growing as a much branched shrub 
about 4 feet high. The species was previously known to occur only in Chi- 
huahua, Sonora, and Sinaloa, Mexico. 


CAESALPINIACEAE 


HOFFMANSEGGIA MICROPHYLLA Torr. Rather abundant on rocky foot- 
hills of the Gila and Tinajas Altas Mts., in Yuma County, where it was col- 
lected by Harrison in 1927. The range as previously recorded is southern 
California (Colorado Desert) to Lower California and Sonora. 


FABACEAE 


*CROTALARIA SAGITTALIS L. Collected by Kearney and Harrison in Garden 
Canyon, Huachuca Mts., Cochise Co. and in a sandy ‘“‘wash”’ near the Pata- 
gonia Mts., in Santa Cruz Co. Previously collected in Arizona by T. E. Wil- 
cox in the Huachuca Mts." and by J. C. Blumer in the Chiricahua Mts., Co- 
chise Co. The range of the species in the United States, as previously 
recorded, is New England to Minnesota, Florida, and Texas. Apparently it 
does not occur in western Texas and New Mexico, but many specimens col- 
lected in Mexico and Central America have been identified as C’. sagzttalis. 
The Arizona plant looks very different from the common form of the eastern 
United States, having shorter stems, shorter and relatively broader leaves, 
inconspicuous or obsolete and not decurrent stipules and smaller pods. It 
has been given a different species name, but since this name appears not to 
have been published it is omitted here, in order not to increase the synonymy 
of this perplexing group. Occasional specimens of C.. sagittalis from east of 
the Mississippi, e.g. specimens collected by Oakes at Plymouth, Mass., are 
practically identical with the Arizonaform. Very similar specimens collected 
in Mexico are: C. Wright 1019, from Santa Cruz, Sonora; #. Palmer 712, 
from Alamos, Sonora; and Townsend & Barber 307, from near Colonia Garcia. 

**T UPINUS SUCCULENTUS BRANDEGEI C. P.Smith.!” Collected by Kearney, 
Harrison, and Peebles near Camp Creek, Maricopa Co., and near Roosevelt, 
Gila Co., in 1928. These collections represent a great extension of range of 
the variety brandegez:, known previously only from Lower California. Speci- 
mens of a more typical form of L. succulentus Doug., were collected by Miss 
Alice Eastwood near Roosevelt, Ariz.!® 

**TRIFOLIUM AMABILE H. B. K. Collected in Garden Canyon, Huachuca 
Mts., Cochise Co., by Kearney in 1928, and previously in the same vicinity 
by F. X. Holzner. These appear to be the only collections in Arizona and in 


14 Tdentification confirmed by N. L. Britton. 

15 Tdentification confirmed by J. N. Rose. 

16 Britton, N. L. and Kearney, T.H., Jr. Anenumeration of the plants collected by 
Dr. Timothy E. Wilcox, U.S. A., and others in southeastern Arizona during the years 
1892-1894. Trans. N. Y. Acad. 14: 21-44. 1894. In this publication the species is 
listed doubtfully as C. rotundifolia (Walt.) Poir. 

17 Tdentified by Charles Piper Smith. 

18 ©, P. Smith in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 49: 203. 1922. 


MARCH 4, 1931 KEARNEY: PLANTS NEW TO ARIZONA 71 


the United States of this species of clover, which is widely distributed in 
Mexico and Central America. 

*PAROSELA JAMESII (Torr.) Vail. Collected near Sonoita, Santa Cruz Co., 
by Peebles and Loomis in 1928, presumably for the first time in Arizona. 
The range as previously recorded is Kansas and Colorado to New Mexico, 
Chihuahua and Coahuila. 

*PETALOSTEMON STANDLEYANUS Rydb.!? Collected near Prescott by Har- 
rison, Peebles, and Kearney in 1927, presumably for the first time in Arizona. 
The species was known previously only from northern New Mexico. 

SPHINCTOSPERMUM CONSTRICTUM (Wats.) Rose. Collected near Nogales 
by Kearney in 1927 and previously at Tucson by J. J. Thornber. These 
apparently are the only localities in the United States where this interesting 
little annual, with curiously constricted seeds, is known to occur. It is found 
also in Sonora and Lower California. 

ZORNIA DIPHYLLA (L.) Pers. Specimens collected by Kearney, Harrison, 
and Peebles near Nogales, Santa Cruz Co., differ from the form commonly 
occurring in Arizona in their long, very narrow, long-acuminate leaves, longer 
and more acuminate bracts, and absence of pubescence except on the margins 
of the bracts. Similar specimens have been collected in Mexico and Central 
America. 

MBIBOMIA GRAMINEA (Gray) Kuntze. This species, characterized by long, 
narrow, unifoliolate leaves, was collected in Baboquivari Canyon, Pima Co., 
by Kearney, Harrison, and Peebles in 1925. Apparently the only previous 
collection in Arizona was that of the type of Desmodium gramineum Gray by 
C. Wright on Sonoita Creek, in what is now Santa Cruz County.?° The 
species ranges southward, to Costa Rica. Its occurrence in New Mexico is 
mentioned by Miss Vail,?! but it is not included by Wooton and Standley in 
their flora of that state.” 

*MEIBOMIA WRIGHTII (Gray) Kuntze. Collected in Baboquivari Canyon 
by Kearney, Harrison, and Peebles in 1925. The range of this species, as 
previously recorded, is Texas, New Mexico and Mexico. <A. K. Schindler 
(MS.) apparently does not recognize M. wrightii as distinct from M. psilo- 
phylla (Schlecht.) Kuntze, but specimens of the latter from Mexico and 
Guatemala have narrower leaves and smaller joints of the fruit than the 
specimens of M. wrightii from Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. 

CLITORIA MARIANA L. This species, collected by us in the Santa Rita Mts., 
Pima Co.. and Sierra Ancha, Gila Co., but previously known to occur in 
southern Arizona, has an interrupted range similar to that of Crotalaria 
sagittalis. It ranges from New York to Missouri and south to Florida and 
eee Texas, and apparently does not occur in western Texas and New 

exico. 


GERANIACEAE 


**(ERANIUM WISLIZENI Wats. Collected in fruit in the Huachuca Mts., 
by Kearney, Harrison, and Peebles in 1926. The occurrence of G. wislizeni 
in Arizona and in the United States seems not to have been reported hitherto, 
the range as given by J. K. Small?’ being northern Mexico (Chihuahua and 


19 Identification confirmed by P. A. Rydberg. 

20 Gray, A., Plantae Wrightianae 2: 46. 1853. 

41 Vail, Anna M., in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 19: 116. 1892. 

22 Wooton, E. O., and Standley, Paul C., Contr. Nat. Herb., vol. 19, 1915. 
23 North American Flora 25: 11. 1907. 


72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5 


Durango). It may, however, be the plant collected in the Huachuca Mts., by 
J. G. Lemmon and referred by Trelease** to G. mexicanum H. B. K. 


BURSERACEAE 


**HLAPHRIUM ODORATUM (Brandeg.) Rose (Bursera odorata Brandeg.)” 
Collected by M. French Gilman near Fresnal, at the western base of the Babo- 
quivari Mts., Pima Co., in 1927, apparently for the first time in Arizona and 
in the United States. A few small trees 10 to 15 feet high are growing at this 
station, on a hot southern slope sheltered by cliffs. The plant is remarkable 
for the vivid green color of the new bark, the thin, papery, easily detachable . 
old bark, and the strong odor, resembling that of tangerines. The range of 
the species, as previously known, is in Mexico, from Sonora and Lower Cali- 
fornia to Morelos and Puebla. 


KU PHORBIACEKAE 


**CROTON SONORAE Torr. A small shrub, collected by Harrison, Kearney, 
and Fulton on the dry rocky slopes of Table Top Mountain, in western Pinal 
Co., in 1930. The range of the species, as previously recorded, is Sonora to 
Oaxaca, Mexico. 

**DITAXIS BRANDEGEI (Millsp.) Rose & Standl. Of rather frequent oc- 
currence on dry rocky slopes of the Gila Mts., near Yuma where it was col- 
lected by Peebles in 1927. The species was previously known only from Lower 
California and northwestern Sonora, ours having been apparently the first 
collection in the United States, as well as in Arizona. In the Arizona speci- 
mens the stems are barely lignified at base. 

** A CALYPHA PRINGLEI Wats. A shrubby plant, collected by the late 
Professor J. Arthur Harris at Quijotoa in the Papago Indian Reservation, 
Pima Co., in 1925. Previously known only from Mexico, where it occurs 
in northwestern Sonora and at San Luis Potosi (Parry & Palmer 824). 

JATROPHA SPATHULATA (Orteg.) Muell. Collected by Kearney and Har- 
rison in 1930 in the Tinajas Altas Mts., Yuma County, and previously there 
by E. A. Goldman. Both collections are of the small-leafed western form of 
this apparently variable species. 

**SAPIUM BILOCULARE (Wats.) Pax. Collected by Harrison near Gila 
Bend, Maricopa Co., where it occurs in considerable numbers along a “‘wash”’ 
and on adjacent slopes. The plant is conspicuous because of the dark green, 
shining foliage. The stems here reach a height of 15 feet. The staminate 
flowers are very fragrant, with an odor suggesting that of plum blossoms. 
The species had been collected previously near Gila Bend, probably at the 
same station, by H. HE. Hasse, and had been observed near Ajo, Pima Co., by 
J. J. Thornber, but the fact of its occurrence in Arizona and in the United 
States seems not to have been recorded hitherto. The plant is interesting as 
being one of the hosts of the “jumping bean’ insect, larvae of which were 
present in the seeds at the Arizona station. With the exception of these 
localities in Arizona, the species is known only from Sonora and Lower Cali- 
fornia. 


ANACARDIACEAE 
*RHUS INTEGRIFOLIA (Nutt.) Benth. & Hook. Collected by Harrison and 
Kearney on the lower eastern slope of the Tinajas Altas Mts., Yuma County, 


24 In Gray and Robinson, Syn. Fl. N. Am. 1': 359. 
25 Identified by P. C. Standley. 


MARCH 4, 1931 KEARNEY: PLANTS NEW TO ARIZONA 73 


and previously at or near the same locality by E. A. Goldman. Although 
these specimens have narrower and more oblong leaves than most specimens 
from California, they seem clearly to belong to this species, which was known 
previously to occur only in southern California and Lower California, chiefly 
near the coast. 

RHAMNACEAE 


COLUBRINA CALIFORNICA I. M. Johnston.** Collected by Peebles and Har- 
rison in Fish Creek Canyon, at the eastern end of Maricopa Co., in 1926. 
It occurs also on adjacent dry mountain sides, and has since been found by 
Harrison in a ‘“‘wash”’ at the base of the San Tan Mts., Pinal Co. At the 
Arizona stations, this shrub reaches a height of 5 to 10 feet. Previously 
known only from Las Animas Bay, Lower California. Dr. Ivan M. Johnston, 
who confirmed the writer’s identification of the Arizona specimens, found them 
to differ from his Lower California material only in the smaller size of the 
fruits. The genus, as well as the species, is new to Arizona. 


MALVACEAE 


ABUTILON PRINGLEI Hochr. This species, nearly related to A. zncanum 
(Link) Sweet but apparently sufficiently distinct, seems to be more frequent 
than the latter in southern Arizona. Most of the specimens collected by us 
have longer pedicels than the type collection of A. pringlet by C. G. Pringle 
near Tucson. 

*ABUTILON THEOPHRASTI Med. A single plant was found by Kearney in 
a cotton field in the Salt River Valley in 1929, this being apparently the first 
known occurrence in the state of this Old World species, which is naturalized 
in other parts of the United States. There is no evidence of its having become 
established as a constituent of the Arizona flora. 

_*HORSFORDIA ALATA (Wats.) Gray. Collected by Harrison at the foot of 
the Tinajas Altas Mts. in 1927, presumably for the first time in Arizona and 
in the United States.2” It proves to be fairly abundant in ‘“‘washes”’ at the 
base of the Gila and Tinajas Altas mountainsin Yuma County. Itisashrub, 
reaching a height of 8 feet, with petals of a pale violet blue. The stems are 
less pubescent in the Arizona specimens than in specimens from Mexico. 
The range of the species, as now known, is Lower California and Sonora to 
southeastern California and southwestern Arizona. 

*SPHAERALCEA ORCUTTI Rose. Collected by Kearney near Wellton, Yuma 
County, in 1927, presumably for the first time in Arizona. It has since 
been found to occur abundantly along the highway from Yuma to Phoenix 
as far east as Mohawk, Yuma County, sometimes covering whole fields and 
giving every appearance of being a recent and rapidly spreading introduction. 
Previous to our collections it seems to have been known only from the Colo- 
rado Desert in California and adjacent Lower California. The species is a 
well-marked one, evidently related to S. coultert Gray in the characters of the 
fruit. Like the latter, it is annual or at most biennial in habit. 

ANODA CRENATIFLORA Orteg. (?). Collected by Kearney and Harrison in 
rich soil among pines in Cave Creek Canyon, Chiricahua Mts., Cochise Co., 


26 See Kearney, T.H. Plants of Lower Californian relationship in central Arizona. 
Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 19: 70, 71. 1929. 

27 ‘The species has since been found at the edge of the Coachella Valley, California, 
and a note by Davidson on its occurrence there (Bull. Southern Cal. Acad. Sci. 29: 
100. 1930) is the first published reference to its occurrence in the United States. 


74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5 


in 1929. The specimens were very young and had flowers with yellow petals, 
but no fruit. Whether they really belong to this species can not be decided 
until more mature specimens have been collected. A. crenatiflora appar- 
ently has been known only from Mexico and Lower California, but the likeli- 
hood of its being found in Arizona is mentioned by Gray and Robinson.”8 

**FITBISCUS BISEPTUS Wats. Collected by Harrison, Peebles, and Kearney 
in the Baboquivari Mts., Pima Co., and in Devils Canyon, Pinal Co., in 1926. 
These are apparently the first collections in Arizona and in the United States 
identified as H. beseptus, although it is likely that some of the Arizona speci- 
mens previously identified as H. coulterc Harvey belong here. The range of 
H. biseptus, as previously known, is Lower California to Chihuahua, Jalisco 
and Sinaloa, Mexico. The hairs of the stems in the Arizona specimens are 
mostly stellate, not simple.?° 


PASSIFLORACEAE?®® 


*PASSIFLORA BRYONIOIDES H. B. K. (P. znamoena Gray). Collected by 
Harrison near Nogales in 1928, apparently for the first time in Arizona’ The 
range of the species, as previously known, is from Texas to Oaxaca, Mexico. 

*PASSIFLORA FOETIDA L. Collected by Harrison in the Baboquivari Mts., 
Pima Co., in 1927, a peculiar form with deeply dissected leaves. This was 
presumably the first collection of the species in Arizona. The range of P. 
foetida, as previously known, is from southern Texas and southern Florida to 
South America. 


ONAGRACEAE 


*OENOTHERA CARDIOPHYLLA SPLENDENS Munz & Johnston. (Section 
Chylismia.) This large-flowered variety, as well as the typical form, O. 
cardiophylla Torr., is of frequent occurrence at the base of the Gila and 
Tinajas Altas ranges in Yuma County. Harrison and Peebles found no in- 
tergradations between the two forms. Munz*! cites only California stations 
for var. splendens, but the writer is informed by Dr. B. L. Robinson that 
this variety had been collected previously in Arizona by E. Palmer. 

*CIRCAEA PACIFICA Asch. & Magn. Collected by Kearney, Peebles, and 
Harrison in 1927 on Mt. Graham, Graham Co., where it grows abundantly in 
rich soil in woods at an elevation of about 6,000 feet. This is presumably 
the first record of the occurrence of any species of this genus in Arizona. ‘The 
range of C. pacifica, as previously known, is California to Utah and northward. 


APIACEAE 


*“ANETHUM GRAVEOLENS L. A single plant was found along an irrigation 
canal at Sacaton, Pinal Co.. by C. J. King in 1926, but no specimens have 
been observed since. The evidence does not warrant the conclusion that this 
Old World species, which yields the condiment dill, has become a constituent 
of the Arizona flora. 


28 Syn. Fl. N. Am. 11: 321. 

29 P, C. Standley, Trees and Shrubs of Mexico. Contr. U. 8S. Nat. Herb. 23: 778. 
1923. 

30 Identified by E. P. Killip. 

31 P, A. Munz in Am. Journ. Bot. 15: 227. 1928. 


MARCH 4, 1931 KEARNEY: PLANTS NEW TO ARIZONA 75 


APOCYNACEAE 


AMSONIA KEARNEYANA Woodson. First collected by F. A. Thackery on 
the western side of the Baboquivari Mts., Pima Co., in 1926, and the species 
is thus far known only from the mouths of canyons in that desert range.* 

AMSONIA POGONOSEPALA Woodson. Collected by Kearney in a sandy 
wash near the Salt River, eastern Maricopa Co., in 1928. Apparently this 
is the only locality in southern Arizona where this species is known to occur, 
the only other known station being the type locality, San Francisco Mts., 
Coconino Co.” 


ASCLEPIADACEAE 


*ASCLEPIAS ALBICANS Wats. Collected at the base of the Tinajas Altas 
Mts. by Harrison in 1927, presumably the first collection in Arizona. This 
peculiar, leafless, desert milkweed proves to be of frequent occurrence in 
the foothills of the Tinajas Altas and Gila ranges, Yuma Co. It was pre- 
viously known to occur only in the Colorado Desert, California, and in Lower 
California and Sinaloa, Mexico (doubtless also in Sonora). The stems, 
sometimes as many as 50 from one root, are somewhat lignified towards the 
base and reach a height of 10 feet and a diameter of 2 inch. 

**ROULINIELLA LIGULATA (Benth.) Standley. (Hnslenia ? ligulata Benth. ; 
Roulinia ligulata Pittier). Flowering specimens of a herbaceous climbing 
Asclepiad, provisionally identified as R. ligulata, were collected in shaded 
alluvial ground along the Sonoita near Patagonia, Santa Cruz Co., by Peebles 
in 1927. They differ from Mexican specimens of FR. ligulata in the more deeply 
cordate leaves, somewhat larger flowers, and longer, more attenuate segments 
of the corona. R. ligulata is known from the States of Morelos, Puebla, and 
Oaxaca in Mexico. There is apparently no record of the occurrence of this 
genus in Arizona, and the species, whether it is <gulata or an undescribed one, 
probably is new to the United States. It is quite distinct from R. unifarza, 
which occurs in southern Texas and is the only member of the genus previously 
known to occur north of Mexico. 


CONVOLVULACEAE 


**JACQUEMONTIA PALMERI Wats. Collected in Baboquivari Canyon, 
Pima Co., by Peebles in 1925, presumably for the first time in Arizona and in 
the United States. The species had previously been known only from Sonora 
and Lower California. 

*IPOMOEA LINDHEIMERI Gray. Collected by Harrison and Kearney near 
Tombstone, Cochise Co., in 1929, presumably for the first time in Arizona. 
The range, as previously known, is southern Texas to southwestern New 
Mexico and Chihuahua and Coahuila, Mexico. 


BORAGINACEAE 


*PECTOCARYA LINEARIS (R. & P.) DC. Collected by us at several locali- 
ties throughout Pinal Co. and near Hot Springs Junction, at the northern 
edge of Maricopa Co. In his revision of the North American species of 
Pectocarya, Ivan M. Johnston* does not record the typical form of P. linearis 


32 Woodson, R. H., Jr. Studiesin the Apocynaceae, III. A monograph of the genus 
Amsonia. Ann. Missouri Bot. Garden 15: 379-434. 1928. 

33 Johnston, I. M. Studies in the Boraginaceae, II. (Contr. Gray Herb. 70: 3-55. 
1924), pp.36and 39. Inthepublicationcited, P. linearis is referred to P. gracilis (R. & P.) 


76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5 


as occurring in Arizona, all North American specimens cited by him being 
from California and the neighboring islands. 


VERBENACEAE 


*LANTANA CAMARA L. Collected by Kearney, Harrison, and Peebles in 
1926 along a large “‘wash”’ near Sells (formerly Indian Oasis) Pima Co., where 
it appeared to be well established. The conditions under which the plants 
were growing preclude the idea that they were introduced by man, although 
L. camara is often cultivated as an ornamental. Migrating birds may have 
brought the seeds from some locality in Mexico, since it occurs in nearly all 
parts of that country. It is found also in the southeastern United States 
from Georgia to southern Texas. Ours was apparently the first collection of 
this species in Arizona. 

BOUCHEA PRISMATICA (Jacq.) Kuntz. (B. ehrenbergit Cham.). This plant, 
although previously known as occurring in Arizona, is rare in that state and 
is found only very near the Mexican border. We have collected it, one or 
two individuals at a time, in the Chiricahua and Huachuca Mts., Cochise Co., 
and near Nogales, Santa Cruz Co. Our specimens belong to var. brevirostra 
Grenzeb., the range of which, as given by Grenzebach,* is New Mexico to 
Salvador. 


MENTHACEAE 


*ISANTHUS BRACHIATUS (L.) B. 8. P. This plant is widely distributed in 
the eastern United States, ranging from Quebec and Ontario to Minnesota, 
Georgia, and central Texas. Its occurrence in Arizona, but apparently not 
in New Mexico, therefore parallels the interrupted distribution of Crotalaria 
sagittalis and of Clitorra mariana. Collected by Harrison in the White Mts. 
in 1927, and previously in the Mogollon region by C. A. Purpus. 

*SALVIA AETHIOPIS L.® Abundant at roadsides and in pastures near Kirk- 
land, south of Prescott, where it was collected by Kearney, Harrison, and 
Peebles in 1926. This seems to be the second record of the establishment of 
this Old World species anywhere in the United States, the only other locality 
known to the writer being at Lakeview, Oregon, where it was collected by A. 
N. Steward in 1920. 

SALVIA CONFINIS Fernald. This apparently rare shrub was collected by 
Peebles and Loomis near Patagonia, Santa Cruz Co., in 1930. The only other 
stations in Arizona where it occurs, so far as the writer knows, are Fort 
Huachuca (the type locality) and Lowell, bothin Cochise Co. Itis found also 
in Sonora, Mexico. , 

SALVIA MOHAVENSIS Greene. Collected by Harrison and Peebles in the 
Sierra Estrella, Maricopa Co., in 1928. This station extends the known range 
considerably to the east, the only previous collection in Arizona, so far as the 
writer knows, having been at Chemehuevis Mountain in Mohave Co., by 
M. E. Jones. The type locality is in the Mohave Desert, California. The 
species has also been collected by D. T. MacDougal at Pinacate, northwestern 
Sonora.*® 


Johnst., but Dr. Johnston has since concluded that this name is untenable. Our 
specimens of Pectocarya were identified by him. 

34 Ann. Mo. Bot. Garden 13: 80, 81. 1926. 

35 Identified by P. C. Standley. 

36 P. A. Munz in Bull. So. Calif. Acad. Sci. 26: 23. 1927. 


MARCH 4, 1931 - KEARNEY: PLANTS NEW TO ARIZONA 71 


SOLANACEAE 


*LYCIUM MACRODON Gray. The occurrence of this species in Arizona does 
not seem to have been definitely recorded, although it is not unlikely that the 
type was collected there rather than in California or Nevada. It is widely 
distributed and fairly common in Pinal County, where it was collected by 
David Griffiths, W. F. Gilman, Alice Eastwood, and subsequently by our 
group. It was collected also at the eastern base of the Tinajas Altas Mts., 
Yuma Co., by Kearney and Harrison in 1930. This species occurs also in 
Sonora, Mexico. The peculiar bony fruit, somewhat resembling that of L. 
coopert Gray, was collected in a mature condition at Sacaton by Peebles in 
1930, apparently for the first time. 

*LYCIUM PARISHII Gray (L. pringlet Gray). Collected at Mohawk, Yuma 
Co., by Kearney, Harrison, and Peebles in 1927, and at several other localities 
in Yuma County and between Casa Grande and Gila Bend (in Pinal or Mari- 
copa Co.) by Kearney and Harrison in 1930. It had previously been col- 
lected by E. Palmer on the Williams Mountains in southern Mohave Co., 
and by David Griffiths on the Papago Reservation in Pima Co., so the species 
evidently ranges pretty well throughout the southwestern part of the state. 
It occurs also in southern California and in northern Sonora.*? 

SARACHA SESSILIS Greene. This apparently rare plant, previously known 
only from the Chiricahua and Huachuca Mts., Cochise Co., was collected in 
Baboquivari Canyon, Pima Co., by Peebles in 1925 and near Nogales. Santa 
Cruz Co., by Kearney, Harrison, and Peebles in 1928, thus extending the 
known range considerably westward. Mr. C. V. Morton of the U.S. National 
Herbarium informs the writer that he regards S. sessilis as not specifically 
distinct from S. edulis (Schlecht.) Thellung, a species of wide distribution 
in Mexico. 

CapsicuM BAccATUM L. Collected by Harrison and Peebles in Baboqui- 
vari Canyon, Pima Co., in 1925. The known range of the species is Florida, 
southern Texas, and southern Arizona, southward to South America. It 
seems to be absent in New Mexico and very rare in Arizona. 

**SOLANUM DEFLEXUM Greenm. Collected in the Baboquivari Mts., Pima 
Co., by Harrison in 1927, and by Kearney, Harrison and Peebles near Nogales, 
Santa Cruz Co., in 1928, both stations being very near the Mexican boundary. 
Our specimens correspond well with Greenman’s description*®*® except in having 
shorter pedicels and a smaller corolla. This species is widely distributed in 
southern Mexico, as far north as Sinaloa, and in Central America, apparently 
occurring also in Lower California. It does not seem to have been reported 
previously as occurring in Arizona or even close to the border in Mexico. As 
the fruits are fleshy, transportation of the seeds by birds migrating northward 
seems not improbable. 

*SOLANUM HETERODOXUM Dunal. Collected near Kirkland, south of Pres- 
cott, Yavapai Co., by Kearney, in 1930, apparently for the first time in Ari- 
zona. ‘The plant is well established and is abundant at roadsides in this 
locality. The Arizona specimens are of the small-flowered form (S. novo- 
mexicanum Bartlett). Solanum heterodoxum occurs also in New Mexico, 
western Texas, and Mexico. E 

*NICOTIANA CLEVELANDI Gray. Collected by Kearney near Wellton in 
1927 and by Kearney and Harrison near the eastern edge of Yuma County in 


37 All of these specimens were identified by C. L. Hitchcock of the Missouri Botanical 
Garden, who has concluded that L. parishii and L. pringlei are not distinct species. 
$8 Proc. Am. Acad. Sci. 32: 301. 1897. 


78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5 


1930. Apparently not previously known as occurring outside of southern 
California. 


-SCROPHULARIACEAE 


ANTIRRHINUM CYATHIFERUM Benth. (A. chytrospermum Gray). This 
species, apparently rather rare in Arizona, has been collected by Peebles and 
Loomis on Picacho Peak and on the San Tan Mts., both localities being in 
Pinal County. It prefers partly shaded situations at the base of cliffs. 
These collections extend the known range considerably eastward, the only 
previously recorded locality in Arizona being Ehrenberg on the Colorado River 
in Yuma Co. This species occurs also in Lower California and Sonora. 

MAURANDYA ACERIFOLIA Pennell. Discovered in Fish Creek Canyon, at 
the eastern end of Maricopa County, by Peebles in 1928.?9 

PENTSTEMON MICROPHYLLUS Gray. Shrubby, with a short and wide corolla 
of a clear yellow color, belonging to a section of the genus (Fruticosi) that is 
otherwise confined to California and Lower California. The type locality is 
on the Williams River in western Arizona, but we have collected it at several 
localities as far east as southern Gila County, between Winkelman and Globe. 


ACANTHACEAE 


BELOPERONE CALIFORNICA Benth. This showy, scarlet-flowered plant, 
very attractive to hummingbirds, is locally abundant on rocky mountain 
sides in southern Arizona. Our collections have extended the known range 
eastward as far as the Superstition and Picacho Mountains, in Pinal County. 
The range as now known is from Lower California, Sonora, and Sinaloa to 
southern California and northeastward to about latitude 33.5 and longitude 
111.5 in Arizona. 


RUBIACEAE 


*GALIUM PILOSUM Ait.4° Collected by Kearney, Harrison, and Peebles 
in 1927 in rich woods on Mt. Graham, Graham Co., where it grew with 
Circaea pacifica. The discovery of this species in southeastern Arizona gives 
it an interrupted range similar to those of Crotalaria sagittalis, Clitoria mari- 
ana, and Isanthus brachiatus, as it was not previously known to occur farther 
to the southwest than central Texas. Our specimens have broader and 
thinner leaves than is usual in G. pilosuwm, but according to Mr. Standley, in 
a letter to the writer, they ‘‘agree very well with shade forms of this species 
from the Chicago region. . . . . I donot see how it is possible to distinguish 
the Arizona material, even varietally.’’ | 

*GALIUM SPURIUM L. (G. vaillantit DC.).“ Collected in Devils Canyon, 
Pinal Co., by Kearney Harrison, and Peebles, in 1928. This Kuropean 
species, naturalized in many parts of the United States, seems not to have been 
reported previously as occurring in Arizona. 


CAPRIFOLIACEAE 


LONICERA INTERRUPTA Benth. This is another plant of the mountains of 
California that reappears in south-central Arizona, having been collected by 
Harrison and Peebles in 1926 in Devils Canyon, Pinal Co., where it is fairly 
abundant. It had been collected previously in the Santa Catalina Mts. by 
Pringle and Lemmon and in the Pinal Mts. by Jones. 


39 Pennell, Francis W. A new Maurandya from Arizona. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 
19: 69, 70. 1929. 

40 Tdentified by P. C. Standley. 

41 Tdentified by P. C. Standley. 


MARCH 4, 1931 KEARNEY: PLANTS NEW TO ARIZONA 79 


LOBELIACEAE 


*NEMACLADUS LONGIFLORUS Gray.” Collected in sandy soil at a roadside 
between Tucson and Ajo, Pima Co., by Kearney, Harrison, and Peebles, in 
1927. Ina letter to the writer Dr. Munz states that ours is thefirst collection 
of this species in Arizona known to him, and adds: “There is some question 
as to whether Nemacladus longiflorus might not be divided so as to recognize 
a desert variety. Your plant matches exactly some four or five collections 
from the western edge of the Colorado Desert in California. These are all 
smaller than the species ordinarily is. Your plant is another example of a 
group of species that is found primarily on the California coast but straggle 
occasionally into the Tucson region.” 


ASTERACEAE* 


SOLIDAGO WRIGHTII ADENOPHORA Blake. The type of this variety was 
collected by Harrison in the Santa Catalina Mts., Pima Co., in 1926, but the 
same form had been collected previously at other localities in southern Arizona 
and New Mexico.* 

ERIGERON OXYPHYLLUS Greene. Collected in the Sierra Estrella, Maricopa 
Co., by Peebles and Harrison in 1928. This represents a considerable south- 
eastward extension of the range, the species having been known previously 
only from Yucca, Mohave Co., Arizona, where the type was collected by M. 
E. Jones. The stems are woody towards the base. 

**QNAPHALIUM PRINGLEI Gray. Collected by Peebles in Baboquivari 
Canyon, Pima Co., in 1925, this being apparently the first collection in Arizona 
and in the United States. Collected subsequently by Harrison and Peebles 
in the Santa Rita Mts. (Pima or Santa Cruz Co.) and by Kearney, Harrison, 
and Peebles in the Huachuca Mts., Cochise Co. The species was known pre- 
viously from Chihuahua and San Luis Potosi, Mexico. 

Nocca DECIPIENS (Hemsl.) Kuntze. This plant is apparently very rare 
in Arizona and confined to the immediate vicinity of the Mexican boundary. 
It was collected by F. A. Thackery at the western base of the Baboquivari 
range, Pima Co., in 1926, and had been collected previously in Pima Co. by 
E. A. Mearns. The known range of the species is from southern Arizona to 
Chihuahua, Sonora and Jalisco, Mexico. 

*XANTHIUM SPINOSUM L. Well established in the vicinity of Prescott, 
Yavapai Co., where it was collected first by B. E. Fernow. Naturalized from 
tropical America. 

TITHONIA THURBERI Gray. Collected in Baboquivari Canyon, Pima Co., 
by Kearney in 1925 and in the vicinity of Nogales, Santa Cruz Co., by Harrison 
and Peebles in 1927. These are the first collections of any member of the 
genus in Arizona and in the United States.® T'. thurberi was known hitherto 
only from northern Sonora. 

VIGUIERA OVALIS Blake. Collected in the Chiricahua Mts., Cochise Co., 
by Kearney and Harrison in 1929, this being the third time the species has 
been collected and the second collection in Arizona (previously by J. G. 
Lemmon, without record of the locality). It is known only from southeastern 
Arizona and southern New Mexico. 


42 Tdentified by Philip A. Munz. 

43 Identified by 8. F. Blake, to whom the writer is indebted for much of the informa- 
tion in the following notes. 

448. F. Blake in Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 19: 269. 1929. 

4. F. Blake in Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 39: 145. 1926. 


80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5 


PERITYLE CILIATA (Dewey) Rydb. (Laphamia ciliata Dewey). Rare but 
widely distributed in Arizona. Collected near Prescott, Yavapai Co., by 
Kearney in 1926 and previously by D. T. MacDougal near Pine, Gila Co., 
by J. W. Toumey in the Tucson Mts., Pima Co. and by J. B. Leiberg on 
Elden Mesa, near San Francisco Mt., Coconino Co. 

LAPHAMIA GILENSIS Jones. This plant, known previously only from the 
type collection by M. E. Jones on the Gila River,“ was collected in Devils 
Canyon in Pinal Co. by Harrison in 1926 and subsequently in Fish Creek 
Canyon at the eastern end of Maricopa Co., by Peebles, Harrison, and 
Kearney. 

' HYMENOTHRIX LOoMiIsiII Blake. The type was collected by Loomis near 

Ashfork, Yavapai Co., in 1926, although the species had previously been ob- 
tained by several other collectors in northern and northwestern Arizona.‘ 
In 1930, H. Loomisiz was found by us growing in considerable abundance 30 
miles south of Prescott, in Yavapai Co., this station being the southernmost 
yet known. 

PLUMMERA AMBIGENS Blake. The type and only known collection of this 
species was on the lower slopes of Mt. Graham, Graham Co., by Kearney, 
Harrison, and Peebles in 1927.47 It occurs abundantly on a dry, unshaded 
slope at that locality. 

**PECTIS URCEOLATA (Fernald) Rydb. (P. prostrata Cav. var. urceolata 
Fernald). Collected near Nogales, Santa Cruz Co., by Harrison and Peebles 
in 1927, and considerably farther north, in the Sierra Ancha, Gila Co., by 
Kearney and Harrison in 1928. It had been collected previously by E. A. 
Mearns south of Bisbee, Cochise Co., but apparently the occurrence of this 
species in Arizona and in the United States has not hitherto been recorded. 
P. urceolata ranges from southern Arizona through Sonora and Chihuahua to 
El Salvador. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—The mastodon of Thomas Jefferson.' MARGARET 
R. Hircucocx, University of Virginia. (Communicated by 
C. WYTHE COOKE.) : 


The upper and lower jaw bones of a Mastodon americanus (Leidy) 
do not, in themselves, constitute a rare fossil. The species has been 
well described by writers for many years, and the work on the Probos- 
cidea, which is in progress, under the direction of Dr. Osborn at the 
American Museum of Natural History, would, of course, cover many 
descriptions of such remains. The bones described below, however, 
are interesting for two reasons, first, because of the historical signifi- 
cance attached to them, and second, because of an unusual position of 
the teeth in the lower right jaw, which resulted in a real malformation. 

The fact that Thomas Jefferson, in addition to being a law giver, 
architect, educator, and inventor, was also a paleontologist, has been 


46S. F. Blake in Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 40: 49, 50. 1927. 
47S. F. Blake in Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 19: 276-278. 1929. 
1 Received January 13, 1931. 


MARCH 4, 1931 HITCHCOCK: MASTODON OF JEFFERSON 81 


brought to our attention again quite recently by Dr. Osborn. In an 
address delivered in Washington in 1929, Dr. Osborn? brought out the 
keenness of Jefferson’s interest in paleontology, and the persistency 
with which he pursued his studies.- From his letters we can see that 


Fig. 1.—View looking down on the lower mandible, showing the differences in the two 
sides. 


interest marching along side by side with the affairs of the nation, for 
on the same day letters were written dealing with fossil remains, and 
others with national policies. A proof of this avocation of his rests 


2H. F. Osporn. Thomas Jefferson, the pioneer in American paleontology. Science, 
n.s., 69: 710-713.- 1929. 


82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5 


at the University of Virginia which he planned and founded. In the 
museum there are the jaw bones of a mastodon which were probably 
given to the School of Natural Science by Jefferson himself. 

There is some question as to the locality from which these bones were 
collected, and by whom collected. Tradition has it that they were 
collected by Thomas Jefferson. It seems unnatural, however, for a 
man who had so great an interest in the study of such fossils, and who 
wrote so many letters on the subject, not to have mentioned in some of 
these an event of such importance as his own personal collection of so 


Fig. 2.—Lower mandible from the rear, showing adjustment caused by the impacted 
tooth at right (as figured). 


greatafind. Inaletter to Dr. Caspar Wistar dated February 25, 1807, 
he writes, “ . Being acquainted with Mr. Ross, proprietor of 
this big bone lick, I wrote him for permission to search for such particu- 
lar bones as the society might desire, and I expect to receive it in a few 
days. Captain Clarke (companion of Captain Lewis) who is now 
here, agrees, as he passes through that country, to stop at the lick, 
employ labourers and superintend the search at my expense, not that 
of the society, and to send me on the specific bones wanted, without 
further trespassing on thedeposit. . . . . Butsend methe list if you 
please without delay, as Captain Clarke returns in a few days, and 


MARCH 4, 1931 HITCHCOCK: MASTODON OF JEFFERSON 83 


we should lose the opportunity.’’? Later in the same year there is a 
letter to General George Rogers Clarke, thanking him for sending on 
the bones which have been collected, and another to Dr. Wistar in 
which the list of bones is again discussed, and in which Jefferson’s 
cabinet at Monticello is mentioned, as a few of the bones were especially 
gathered for it.t Whether the jaws, which are in the museum at the 
University of Virginia are some of those collected by the Clarke 
brothers, or had been owned by Jefferson before that time, we may be 
fairly certain that they were a part of his collection at Monticello, 
for George Tichnor wrote from there of the ‘‘os frontis”’ of a ‘‘mam- 
moth’ in the ‘‘cabinet,’’ and that they were given from there to the 
University, where they are another evidence of his interest in the nat- 
ural sciences. 

The upper jaw with a portion of the skull is probably the better 
preserved of the two members as far as teeth are concerned, but in the 


TABLE 1.—DIMENSIONS OF THE LOWER JAW 


Left side Right side 

cm. cm. 

MMO TINGI APs Sk el oe dake cb ila cs fo OS Aa ed wa ale 65 68 

Wadth of yaw iv front, of front) molar.................0...6+. 8 13 

Midttuoteraw behind firstmolar.. 6.) 2,0... 6. 2. dea cucee eee 15 19 
Length from the inside of the symphysis to the beginning of 

PMCECOLOMOMA [ITOCESS 222) 88 Soe ce de Ck ve oe NOE Ee 35 38 

Width at the beginning of the coronoid process............. 14 14 

Height of the coronoid process from the top to the jaw bone. 14 134 


@ The original length of the broken process must have been a little greater than 16cm 


consideration of the bony structure as a whole, it is a less cemplete 
specimen. All of the more porous parts of the upper portion of the 
skull have been broken off, so that only the traces of the air cells have 
been left, and only the base of the brain cavity, still showing, however, 
the processes which divide these. Nevertheless the fine porosity of 
the bones is well shown and an excellent idea of the general structure 
of the skull may be obtained. The length of this piece is about 50 cm., 
while the width is between 35 and 40 cm.; there are two molars in place 
on each side. Of these the front ones are the most worn, and so well 
worn that there are no cusps, but ridges, while only the front two cusps 
are worn on the back ones. All the transition stages can be seen from 
the well worn in front to the perfect cones in back, which must have 


3 The writings of Thomas Jefferson. 9: 158. 1907. 
4 The writings of Thomas Jefferson. 9: 403, 405. 1907. 


84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 5 


been still covered by the gums. On the right side, the bony process in 
front has been broken off until it shows the long curved roots of the first 
molar. The right side seems to have had more use, as the teeth are 
more worn down than those on the left side, and this seems to be con- 
nected with a slight warping of the upper jaw, which might otherwise 
have been considered a result of the replacement accompanying fossili- 
zation, but which seems to correspond with a malformation of the lower 
mandible, which does away with that conjecture. 

As the lower jaw is not symmetrical and has been broken, it presents 
several problems. The break occurs just to the right of the symphysis 
but owing to the recency of the mending of this, very probably within 
the last twenty years, it would seem to be surely one complete lower 
jaw, and not the patched up fragments of the jaws of two different 
individuals. It seems necessary to decide this fact because of the lack 
of similarity of the two sides, in several ways (see figures 1 and 2). 
This difference is, perhaps, best brought out in a comparison of the 
measurements taken of the two sides, listed in Table 1. 

It is interesting to note that the Fennel difference in length in the two 
jaws is only 3 cm., as the apparent difference is so great. This is most 
- probably due to the more massive appearance of the left side, which is 
also the shorter side, and this tends to magnify the inequality. This 
shortness of the left side persists in all parts of the jaw, except in the 
tooth sockets, which seem to be the same size in all dimensions as those 
on the right. ‘This, of course, has the effect of making them appear 
much larger in proportion. The vertical thickness of the two sides is so 
nearly the same that no measurements in this direction were taken 
until the coronoid process was reached. ‘The shape of the two sides of 
the jaws differs greatly. The curve from the symphysis on the left side 
is quite abrupt, going into a fairly straight line almost immediately, 
while on the right side the curve is slower and continues to the coronoid 
process, where the bone narrows on both sides. This narrowing occurs 
to a certain degree in both sides, but on the right side it narrows quickly 
and leaves a decided angle on the inside of the jaw, while on the left side 
there is a slow and more rounded narrowing (see figures 1 and 2). 
The width of the two sides, just in front of this process and behind the 
second molar, is the same on the two sides. This is as it should be, but 
in this case, where the entire left side is smaller, it makes this side 
proportionately too broad at thatspot. "Themassive appearance above 
mentioned is due to this swelling and the lack of angularity of curve 
behind it. 

The height of the coronoid process varies on the two sides. The 


MARCH 4, 1931 HITCHCOCK: MASTODON OF JEFFERSON 85 


right side of the specimen has been broken at this point, but even in 
that state, the right side measures 13 cm. while the left measures 14 
em., and the necessary additional height to complete the process on 
the right side would make that side at least measure up to 16 cm. 
This is the only great difference in vertical height in the two sides. 

The teeth of the lower mandible are not all present, but those still in 
place are in a state of good preservation, and again show the different 
stages of wear, and are, in general, less worn than those of the upper 
mandible. The teeth of the right side are two in number, molars of 
three and five ridges or cones. ‘The first molar, three-coned, is slightly 
worn down, the front cone as is natural being the most worn, and the 
second, the five-coned tooth, has no sign of wear on the back two cones. 
Even the slight depression into two cusps on the last cone of this tooth 
shows perfectly. These teeth are in place and there is apparently no 
room for any others between the last one and the coronoid process, 
and no spot in this process which is thick enough to conceal 
another later molar. The teeth of the left jaw which correspond to 
those of the right jaw are missing. These have very evidently been 
lost since the specimen was found. Perhaps they were given to other 
museums by Jefferson in the early days at Monticello, or they may have 
been misplaced since becoming the property of the University of 
Virginia. The sockets in which the roots of these teeth rested are per- 
fectly clear and clean of any foreign material, which is not true of some 
of the air cells and cavities in the skull, which still contain small 
pebbles and sand, and have been broken and chipped away. These 
sockets show that they originally contained first a three-coned tooth, 
and second a five-coned tooth, exactly corresponding to the two on the 
other side, though they seem to have been placed a little farther for- 
ward on the jaw bone nearer the symphysis than those on the right side. 
In addition to these, there is, as a third tooth, a large molar, the first 
two cones of which are now visible in front of the coronoid process, the 
last three of which are beneath this and only visible from the inside of 
the jaw, where the bone has been broken away (see figure 2). This 
molar is as large as the one on the right side, which would correspond 
to the original second tooth on the left jaw, and is in perfect condition, 
not worn at all; in fact, it could never have appeared above the gum, 
as the top of the cones is still below the original surface of the slope 
leading from the jaw bone proper to the coronoid process. The bone of 
the process above it is much thicker through than the corresponding 
bone of the left jaw, and seems to have thickened and changed the 
angle of growth in order to accommodate this peculiar tooth. If the 


86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 5 


curve of the connection between the Jaw bone proper and the process 
were not broken, it would be possible to see how completely surrounded 
this tooth is by bone. As it is, a reconstruction of this material can be 
postulated and the line of the original bony material drawn which 
would cut the tooth at such an angle, that it would be impossible for 
the tooth ever to have appeared above the surface, either in a vertical 
or in an inclined horizontal direction. In the latter and only possible 
direction the bone which has recently been broken off would have inter- 
cepted and broken off the second cone of the tooth, which, of course, 
would have stopped its progress. This tooth, then, seems to be one 
which is completely misplaced, and which, due to this, has caused a 
thickening and changing of the shape of the process in which it is 
found. The changes in bone building necessary to accommodate this 
tooth would lower the coronoid process, causing the difference in verti- 
cal height between the process on the left jaw and the corresponding 
process on the right jaw. This difference probably amounted to as 
much as 2 cm., at least, and this, with the greater thickness, would 
throw the balance of the jaw to an entirely different center from the 
normal one of the right jaw. In this way may be explained the differ- 
ence in length of the two jaws as well as their great difference in shape. 

In addition to this, it is interesting to note that the upper mandible 
seems to be slightly warped and one-sided. As mentioned above, 
this seems to be a real malformation, and not an effect of fossilization, 
and appears to be an attempt of the upper mandible to conform to 
the distortion of the left lower jaw, in order to give as good occlusion 
as possible. In this way the occurrence of one tooth in the wrong 
position has caused the warping and malforming of the entire head 
of the mastodon. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


1011TH MEETING 


The 1011th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium on Novem- 
ber 8, 1930, President LamBrrr presiding. The program consisted of six 
reports on various phases of the meeting of the International Union of Geod- 
esy and Geophysics held in Stockholm, Sweden on August 15-23, 1930. 
The discussion of the papers was deferred until the end of the program. 

W. Bowrsn: An outline of the organization and purpose of the Union, and 
Proceedings of the Section of Geodesy.—The International Geodetic and Geo- 
physical Union is one of the branches of the International Research Council. 


MARCH 4, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 87 


At stated periods delegates from the different countries meet under the aus- 
pices of this Union to confer on questions of geodesy and of geophysics which 
are world wide in their extent, and to lay out comprehensive plans of attack 
on these problems. 

Before the world war, there were a number of scientific associations, each 
of which covered a certain branch of science. These associations either went 
out of existence during the war or were very much reduced in size and im- 
portance. In 1919, the Allied Powers reorganized international scientific 
work at a meeting in Brussels, Belgium, at which the International Research 
Council and several of its Unions were formed. Later, other Unions were 
created. 

There are now 38 countries adhering to the International Research Coun- 
cil and the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union. Delegates from 
32 of these countries were present at the Stockholm meeting, and also guests 
from Germany, Austria, Latvia, Lithuania and Esthonia. In all, there were 
about 180 official representatives and 70 invited guests at the meeting. The 
guests took part in the scientific discussions, but did not vote. 

One of the most important things which came before the Union was the 
revision of the Statutes. The Council and its Unions are, at present, working 
under what is called a convention which somewhat resembles a treaty among 
the different countries. This convention will expire on December 31, 1931, 
when some new arrangement must be provided. The International Research 
Council has had a committee working on the revision of the present conven- 
tion and statutes and, according to present advice, the new arrangement will 
take the form merely of statutes rather than a convention. This will mean 
that the Council will not be quite so formal as it now is. 

The new statutes will use the designation association instead of section for 
each branch of the Unions. This designation carries more weight and dig- 
nity, and the change was unanimously approved. Another change in the 
statutes relates to the term of office of the President of the Union, who here- 
after will hold office only during the period between two general assemblies 
and will not be eligible for immediate reélection. Still another change deals 
with the matter of financial contributions from the adhering countries. The 
largest of the countries, including the United States, pay annually eight units 
and, at present, a unit is 900 gold francs. The unit hereafter will be 2000 
Swiss franes, and thus the annual contribution from the United States will be 
slightly more than $3000 in U. 8. currency. 

The International Geodetic and Geophysical Union embraces 7 associa- 
tions, as follows: Geodesy, Seismology, Meteorology, Terrestrial Magnetism 
and Electricity, Oceanography, Volcanology, and Scientific Hydrology. 

The Stockholm meeting of the Section of Geodesy was a very successful 
one. ‘There were approximately 70 delegates and guests present. As usual, 
national reports from each of the countries represented, giving in some detail 
its geodetic accomplishments during the preceding three years and including 
discussions of improvements in methods and instruments and results of 
scientific research, were received. These reports were all in printed form 
and the chairmen of the various national delegations simply gave abstracts. 

There were 21 standing and special committees, all of which held meetings 
and reported their findings and recommendations to the Association. A 
number of resolutions were adopted by the Association relating to recom- 
mended arcs of triangulation, gravity observations at sea, ete. 

Only one scientific paper was presented, and that was by Dr. F. A. VENING 
MBINESZ, a member of the Dutch Geodetic Commission. He described his 


88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5 


recent gravity-at-sea work in the waters of the East Indies, during which he 
established about 235 stations. He has already made an approximate iso- 
static reduction of these stations, and finds that the East Indies, as a whole, 
are in isostatic equilibrium but that there are some rather interesting and 
remarkable local anomalies. 

The delegates were unanimous in expressing their admiration of the splen- 
did arrangements which had been made by the local committee, headed by 
Dr. PLEVEL. Every facility was afforded the Union and the Associations to 
carry on their work in the smoothest’ possible way. The Swedish people are 
noted for their ability in organizing and handling such meetings as that of 
the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union. (Author’s abstract.) 

H. H. Kimpatu: Proceedings of the Section of Meteorology.—The several 
commissions of the Section held numerous meetings prior to the convening 
of the Section, listening to papers, and discussing and amending resolutions 
that were later presented to the Section for action. In spite of this prelimi- 
nary work, the Section had not time to properly discuss important oc 
that came before it. 

With a view to remedying this condition the Section, by resolution, limited 
its future activities to the consideration of meteorological questions that call 
for collaboration with other branches of geophysics, or that may require 
discussion by experts before they can be recommended to the Meteorological 
Organization for consideration in connection with the solution of practical 
problems. 

As illustrating the significance of this resolution, it was noted that there 
are important relations between the extensions of polar ice and the seasonal 
character of the weather over large areas. It was suggested to the Meteoro- 
logical Organization (made up of directors of meteorological services) that 
more complete data on this subject be collected, especially during the polar 
year 1932-33. Also, the attention of the Meteorological Organization was 
invited to the possibility of introducing into the publication of daily observa- 
tions the data necessary for the calculation of the entropy of the air, and of 
defining air turbzdity with a view to eventually including it in synoptic wire- 
less issues. | 

The Section recommended that the Union accept the invitation of the 
Meteorological Organization to cooperate in organizing and carrying out a 
second polar year in 1932-1933, and that an effort be made to obtain the 
active cooperation of governments and scientific institutions. 

These are only a few of the subjects passed upon by resolutions, the com- 
plete text of which is published in the Monthly Weather Review, August, 
1930, 58: 313-316. 

The budget of the Section has to its credit for expenditure during the 
period of 1930-33, about 365,000 French francs, ($14,600.00). Of this 
$2,000 is allotted to the Bureau of the Section for its expenses. The rest is 
distributed among various projects, such as the publication of reports on the 
exploration of the high atmosphere, the preparation of weather charts of the 
Northern Hemisphere, the publication of a bibliography of solar radiation, a 
grant to the Potar YEAR in the form of a prize for the first model of an auto- 
matic meteorological station giving satisfactory results, and to M. GrAo for 
experiments in weather forecasting. (Author’s abstract.) 

N. H. Heck: Proceedings of the Section of Secsmology.—The meeting of the 
Section of Seismology started off under unusually good conditions. Professor 
H. H. Turner of Oxford University as Chairman presented an unusually 
fine report. He called attention to the great advances being made in seis- 


MARCH 4, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 89 


mology in nearly all parts of the earth, but especially in the United States. 
He also presented the discussion of earthquakes of unusually deep focus, 
showing that such earthquakes occur around the rim of the Pacific. His 
theories are of interest because of the apparent conflict of such depth of focus 
with the principle of isostasy. 

Just as the second session was about to start, Professor TURNER leaned 
forward, put his hand to his forehead and never had a conscious moment, 
dying three days later. It was necessary, of course, for the meeting to go on 
and after his removal to the hospital, the various national reports were re- 
ceived, including that for the United States which I presented and which was 
commended. 

The division of the somewhat increased funds was discussed and it was 
decided to divide them into three parts, one for continuing the international 
seismological summary at Oxford, another for the work of the Central Bureau 
at Strasbourg, and the third to finance special investigations or to be held in 
reserve. Travel time curves and tables of earthquakes were discussed and 
Dr. MacELWANE agreed to revise his tables and Professor RoTHE agreed to 
publish them on behalf of the International Bureau. A code for inter- 
national transmission of seismic data was revised. 

Special reports and papers of interest included one by Miss LAHMENN of 
Denmark who gave the results of studies of an earthquake in the Yonga 
Deep and one in Mexico, these occurring at such distances from Europe as to 
give results of particular interest in regard to certain phases passing through 
the core. Dr. Imamura presented a very complete discussion of earth tilts 
in Japan as relating to earthquakes. He showed that after a great earth- 
quake there is for a long time tilting in one direction, then a reversal, and 
finally, just before a great earthquake, there are very sudden changes in the 
tilt which serve to give a few hours advance warning. He was able from 
geological records to apply the theory to early earthquakes long before the 
period of accurate instrumental observations. Dr. WENNER discussed his 
torsion seismometer and presented a design for a strong-motion instrument 
to be used in the central region of a strong earthquake. Dr. MacrLwaNneE 
described the recent performance of the Wood-Anderson seismometer, an 
important matter because the presentation of this subject at the Madrid 
meeting of the Union was unfortunate. He also gave an analysis of the time 
as obtained from records from important stations throughout the earth and 
proved that the errors may be much greater than ordinarily assumed. A 
representative of Portugal called attention to recent monumental work on 
the geological features of the great Lisbon earthquake. Dr. RoTuf gave a 
memorial address on Dr. WIECHERT, the great German seismologist who died 
since the last meeting. Dr. ANGENHEISTER, a German seismologist who was 
present as a guest and Dr. Conrap of Vienna who was present agreed to 
publish both addresses in the Beitrage Zur Geophysik. 

These were the principal activities though many other matters were dis- 
cussed. 

After the removal of Professor TURNER proceedings were handicapped by 
the inability of Acting Chairman Oppone and Secretary RoTus& to speak 
English and interpreters had not been provided as Professor TURNER always 
performed this function extremely well. The results were very unsatis- 
factory to the English speaking delegates who comprised about half the 
number. I was able to understand about 80 per cent, but not enough for 
intelligent action on important matters. Assurance was given that inter- 
preters will be provided in the future. 


90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5 


In conclusion, I consider the meeting as generally successful. We must 
have, from time to time, consultation on international issues. At the next 
meeting the matter of publication must be given more attention. Certain 
activities now national could well become international and thereby relieve 
each part of the earth of routine work and thereby make possible special 
studies which will increase our knowledge. The importance of personal con- 
tacts with geophysicists of other countries will undoubtedly be emphasized 
by the speaker dealing with the general features of the meeting. (Author's 
abstract.) 

J. A. Ftemine: Proceedings of the Section of Electricity and Magnetism.— 
Six scheduled and well-attended meetings of the Association of Terrestrial 
Magnetism and Electricity at Stockholm were held during August 1930, and 
the Association also took part in four joint sessions one with the Associations 
of Geodesy and Seismology, one with the Association of Meteorology, and 
two with the International Scientific Radio Union. The agenda for the meet- 
ing held an unusually great number of items, all of which were actively re- 
ported upon and discussed despite the comparatively short time available. 

Detailed progress reports of magnetic-survey work and investigations were 
received from twenty countries including three reports from the United 
States—the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the American Geophysical Union, 
and the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution ot 
Washington. Numerous publications relating to these reports were dis- 
tributed, and one was impressed not only with the amount of useful work in 
the fields of the Association being done throughout the world but also with 
the vast amount still to be done. 

The report of the special committee on the preparation of a photographic 
atlas of aurora with type descriptions and instruction for photographic and 
visual observation was received and approved, and authority was given that 
copies of the atlas be distributed without charge to observatories and or- 
ganizations where worth-while auroral observations might be made. Follow- 
ing the report of the special committee on criteria of measures of magnetic 
activity, the formulas for characterization of days (HRu + ZRz)/10,000 
or (NRn + WRw + ZRz)/10,000 were adopted, where & represents the 
absolute daily range of the element indicated for the Greenwich day, and 
arrangements were proposed that data derived by one or the other formula 
be published by the International Commission of Terrestrial Magnetism and 
Electricity in its regular publication of magnetic character of days. 

The importance of continuing comparisons of standard electromagnetic 
instruments of various governments was emphasized, as also the design of 
portable apparatus of this character. It was agreed that the various sugges- 
tions on the subject of a uniform terminology be published for further con- 
sideration. The adoption of Greenwich mean time for the publication of 
magnetic data was referred for further consideration to a special committee. 
A reporter was appointed to summarize the progress in the studies of theories 
of terrestrial magnetism. 

The importance of standardizing ion counters was emphasized, and the 
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washing- 
ton was appointed as a central office to which matters could be referred per- 
taining to ion counters for compilation, discussion, and determination of the 
standards. Following discussion of the electric field of the atmosphere, it 
was agreed that tabulations to determine electric character of day might best 
be limited to electrically calm days. 

Among the communications of particular interest in atmospheric elec- 


MARCH 4, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY on 


tricity was one on the direct recording of air-earth current at the Kew Ob- 
servatory by the C.T.R. Witson method; such records may be compared 
with indirect determination through the records also being made of the con- 
ductivity and potential gradient of the atmosphere. 

Considerable attention was given economic aspects of the Association’s 
activities. These included the application of geophysical principles to the 
investigation of the earth’s crust; it was agreed that a committee be appointed 
jointly by the associations of Seismology, Geodesy, and Terrestrial Magne- 
tism and Electricity to collaborate in the solution of problems in geology 
through geophysics. Another economic aspect was the development of 
machine methods to facilitate the complex computations and compilations 
required in studying the numerous data accumulated by many observatories. 
An example of this was brought out in the report of a special committee on 
international collaboration for the advancement of studies of the influences 
of the moon on geophysical phenomena developing a plan for the assembling 
of data making use of Hollerith methods for compilations. The report was 
favorably considered and satisfaction expressed that a practical trial of the 
application of such a method was in-prospect, thus paving the way for a 
definite proposal for international cooperation later. 

Much attention was also given the proposal for the Jubilee Polar Year of 
1932-33 of the Polar Commission of the International Meteorological Com- 
mittee, and the desirability of adherence in the undertaking of all govern- 
ments was stressed. Following a joint meeting of the Associations of Mete- 
orology and'of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity and the deliberations 
of a special joint committee, the following resolution was prepared for and 
later adopted by the General Assembly: 

“The Union accepts the invitation of the International Meteorological 
Committee to cooperate in organizing and carrying out a second Polar Year 
with a similar object to that of the first Polar Year 1882-1883, and appoints 
the following Commission for this purpose: STGRMER (Chairman), CHAPMAN, 
La Cour, Mauratn, and WEHRLE.”’ 

Other resolutions proposed by the joint committee were adopted by the 
Association. One emphasizes the very great importance for the advance- 
ment of geophysical science for the Polar Year as planned and its approval 
that the observations should not be confined only to polar regions. The 
Association, realizing the desirability that all cameras, plates, and spectro- 
scopes used in the observations of the aurora should be of equal sensitivity, 
voted 15,000 gold francs for the provision of instruments of a standard type. 
It was further unanimously resolved that all observations should be reduced 
according to an agreed plan and that the Commission for the Polar Year 
should consider the best method for making the detailed results available 
for all those interested, further suggesting that all published volumes should 
be put on sale and that the various associations of the Union should subscribe 
for a number of copies. 

Regarding possible overlapping of the work being done by the Association 
of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity and the Commission on Terrestrial 
Magnetism and Electricity of the International Meteorological Committee, 
it was unanimously agreed upon that it is not necessary to set a rigorous 
definition of the domain of each organization, as no difficulties have been 
met with in practice and no unnecessary duplications have been encountered, 
and as the respective officers can continue their effective cooperation in 
avoiding these. 

The importance of study of the correlation of the reception of wireless 


92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5 


signals and geophysical phenomena was referred to two joint meetings with 
the International Scientific Radio Union, the Association expressing itself 
as approving any program assuring the broadcasting of cosmic phenomena to 
facilitate the study of correlations concerning radio communication and the 
magnetic and electric condition of the Earth. 

Recognizing the vital need of a better world-wide distribution of observa- 
tories, especially in the southern hemisphere, a special committee was ap- 
pointed to consider existing and desirable distribution of magnetic and elec- 
tric observatories and to consider plans for better coordination of work and 
publications of existing observatories. The economic impossibility of realiz- 
ing more than a limited number of observatories and the reports on secular- 
variation investigations submitted stressed the need of systematic field work, 
and a special committee was appointed to plan and to accomplish means to 
secure through cooperation of interested governmental and private organiza- 
tions well-distributed secular-variation data. In connection with this sub- 
ject, appreciation of and generous comment was expressed on all sides on 
the magnetic and electric work at sea secured by the Carnegie together with 
expressions of regret that the work that vessel and her commander and staff 
had so well done could not have been continued as planned. 

The election of officers for the period to the next Assembly at Lisbon in 
1933 resulted as follows: J. A. FLEmMineG, United States, Preszdent; CARLHEIM- 
GYLLENSKOLD, Sweden, Vice-President; Cu. Maurain, France, Secretary 
and Director of Central Bureau. The Executive Committee of the Associa- 
tion, besides these officers, includes A. CricHton MitcHe.u of Great Britain, 
J, JAUMOTTE of Belgium, D. LA Cour of Denmark, L. Pauazzo of Italy, and 
A. TANAKADATE of Japan. (Author’s abstract.) 

G. W. LitTLEHALES: Proceedings of the Section of Oceanography.—The sig- 
nificant events of the meeting of the International Section of Oceanog- 
raphy at Stockholm were on the administrative side—not that there were no 
important reports and communications brought and deliberated upon. 

The Spaniards, in relation to the project for connecting Spain and Morocco 
by tunneling under the bed of the intervening waters, presented details of 
their oceanographical operations in the Strait of Gibraltar, portraying the 
submarine conformation of the Strait and the hydrological mechanism of its 
waters; the International Hydrographic Bureau at Monaco, through the 
President of its Directing Committee, submitted an account of the considera- 
tions of the Bureau, accompanied by an appeal for advice, in relation to the 
transaction with the Oceanographical Museum of Monaco by which the 
Bureau had accepted the charge of the upkeep of the Carte générale bathymé- 
trique des océans; Dr. VENING MeEtNesz furnished a discussion of the facts of 
observation resulting from his campaigns for measuring the distribution of 
the intensity of gravity on the ocean; the British delegation brought a mathe- 
matical discussion of the action of the tides in narrow channels; the Department 
of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington presented, 
in a series of reports of unexcelled form and substance, the oceanographical 
results of the last cruise of the CarNEGIE, and, in addition, the American 
delegation presented a comprehensive report of developments in oceanography 
for the years intervening since the meeting of the International Section of 
Oceanography in 1927. 

But to return to the administrative side: When the International Re- 
search Council was established at Brussels in 1919, among the unions that 
were formed to compose the institution was the Union of Geodesy and Geo- 
physics, in which provision was made for a Section of Physical Oceanography 


MARCH 4, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 93 


—the intended place for Biological Oceanography being in the contemplated 
Union of the Biological Sciences. 

Inasmuch as the Union of Biological Sciences did not develop as intended, 
the aspiration soon manifested itself to have formed a separate Union of 
Oceanography which should include both physical oceanography and bio- 
logical oceanography. This proposal was advanced before the International 
Research Council, but the Council did not change the Statute as originally 
framed. 

Biological oceanographers have, however, largely adhered to the Inter- 
national Section of Oceanography, and the Section has been under the ad- 
ministration of biological oceanographers from the time of the meeting of the 
International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics at Rome in 1922 until the 
election, which was brought about at Stockholm, which resulted in the in- 
stallation of a physical oceanographer in the Chairmanship and also a physi- 
cal oceanographer in the Secretaryship. (Awthor’s abstract.) 

F. WENNER: Impressions of the excursions and entertainments——The en- 
tertainments and excursions arranged for the delegates included a banquet 
at the City Hall given by the City of Stockholm; an excursion on Lake 
Malaren to Mariefred, with a visit to the old Gripsholm Royal Castle, and 
luncheon; an excursion into the archipelago of Stockholm and luncheon; 
reception by the Crown Prince and Princess at the Royal Palace; visit to the 
University of Uppsala; banquet given by the Swedish Organization Com- 
mittee; three excursions arranged especially for the ladies at times when the 
delegates were supposed to be attending meetings, and two excursions after 
the close of the meetings, one to northern Sweden and one to Goteborg via 
the Trollhattan Canal. In addition there were many privately arranged 
luncheons, dinners, and other social gatherings, visits to the Swedish Geo- 
logical Survey, the Magnetic Laboratory, etc. The entertainments and 
excursions were for the most part well planned so that they constituted an 
exceptional opportunity for the formation of acquaintances and friendships 
among the delegates and their accompanying ladies. They also furnished 
numerous opportunities for the discussion of questions arising in the meet- 
ings. Finally they served as a means for giving us a better understanding of 
the Swedish people and their customs than otherwise would have been 
possible in so short a time. 

While the excursions and entertainments were most profitable as well as 
enjoyable, of those in which I participated the one most worth while was the 
excursion to Géteborg, which is on the west coast. This was planned by Mrs. 
JENSEN of G6teborg and conducted by Major RicHarp SMEDBERG of Stock- 
holm and Mrs. JENSEN assisting. The first day was spent in tramping, under 
the guidance of Civil Engineer Witt1am Mosere through a trackless country 
in the neighborhood of Degerfors, which is in the south-central part. The 
second day was spent on the Canal and in visiting the locks and various hy- 
droelectric plants along the route, points of interest being discussed by Pro- 
fessor Baron STEN DE GEER. The third day was spent in seeing points of 
interest in and in the vicinity of G6teborg under the guidance of Baron STEN 
DE GEER. In the evening we were guests at a dinner given by the Governor 
of the Province of Géteborg and Mrs. von Sypow. While this dinner was » 
not as elaborate as others, evening dress with decorations was specified. By 
that time the party of about 35 representing eleven different nations were 
fairly well acquainted, considering the language difficulty, there being seven 
languages represented. Further, for this group this was the final formal social 
function of the meeting, so someone from each of the countries gave a short 


94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No.5 


talk and toast to our hosts. The fourth day we were guests of the Swedish 
Hydrographic and Biological Commission aboard the Coast Guard vessel 
SKAGERAK into the Goteborg archipelago. When the party broke up on the 
afternoon of the fourth day, we were as happy a group of people as I had ever 
seen. The various difficulties which had been continually coming up in the 
meeting had largely disappeared and we parted with a feeling of mutual under- 
standing and of real friendship towards each other.. The friendships formed 
and the understandings reached on this excursion will no doubt have a marked 
effect upon the progress of geophysics. (Author’s abstract.) 
The report as a whole was discussed by Messrs. CriIrrENDEN, Meyer, and 
HUMPHREYS. 
Oscar 8. Apams, Recording Sea 


BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


7518ST MEETING 


The 751st meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club 
October 18, 1930 at 8.10 p.m. with President WrEtTMoRE in the chair and 38 
persons present. 

ALEXANDER WETMORE mentioned the observation of a flock of Forster 
Tern in Maryland near the mouth of the Potomac on September 28, 1930. 
One specimen was collected. 

Howarp Batu announced his capture of a specimen of Baird Sandpiper 
that day at Alexander Island, Virginia. 

S. F. BLake& presented a note on the domestic turkey made during the past 
summer in Maryland. While driving on the highway to Point Lookout, a 
female turkey was observed in the road brooding a dead young one which had 
evidently been run over by an automobile a short time before. The turkey 
stood up, took the head of the young one in her beak, and shook it as though 
trying to arouse it. At the approach of another automobile she left it and 
walked across the road. 

The regular program was as follows: 

ALEXANDER Wetmore: The International Ornithological Congress.—The 
speaker gave an interesting account of this Congress held at Amsterdam in 
June 1930, at which about 300 delegates were present. Several excursions 
were made to points of ornithological interest. The next meeting will be 
held in England in 1934. 

L. M. Estesrooxe: The Inter-American Conference on Agriculture —The 
speaker outlined the subjects discussed at the First Inter-American Conference 
on Agriculture held in Washington in September, which covered the whole 
field of agriculture and marketing, and spoke of some of the more important 
resolutions presented. 

Watson Davis: Recent Biological Literature—The speaker mentioned 
briefly some recently announced scientific discoveries and exhibited several 
lately published books. He also commented on several recently exhibited 
fraudulent moving pictures purporting to show African wild life. 

A. 8S. Hircucocx: Nomenclature at the International Botanical Congress.— 
The speaker presented an account of some of the results in nomenclature at 
the International Congress held in Cambridge, England, last August, with an 
account of the preliminary work leading up to the Congress. 


MARCH 4, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 95 


752D MEETING 


The 752d meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club 
on November 1, 1930 at 8.10 p.m. with President WeTMoRE in the chair and 78 
persons present. New memberselected: A. V.Smitu, Mrs. Viota S. SNYDER. 

T.S. PALMER gave an account of the recent meeting of the American Orni- 
thologists’ Union at Salem, Massachusetts, and that of the National Associa- 
tion of Audubon Societies at New York, and the coming annual trip of the 
local Audubon Society to the Zoological Park. He also mentioned that the 
strict embargo on the importation of parrots has now been modified to permit 
the entrance of certain species. 

The regular program was as follows: 

W. L. Scumitt: Exhibition of a rare isopod (illustrated)—The speaker 
exhibited specimens of the giant isopod, Bathynomus giganteus, eight speci- 
mens of which were captured by an expedition of which he was a member 
last summer near the Dry Tortugas, and gave an account of its history. 

J. I. HamBieton: The behavior of the honey bee (illustrated).—The speaker 
exhibited moving pictures showing the life of the honey bee, particularly its 
method of ventilating the hive and of gathering pollen, accompanying the 
pictures with an account of the habits of bees. 

H. C. Bryant: Fancy and fact in natural history —The speaker mentioned 
ancient and modern fables relating to supposed remarkable habits of various 
birds and other animals, such as the hibernation of swallows, the transforma- 
tion of a horsehair into a worm, the hoop snake, the connection between toads 
and warts, and soon. He then described in contrast even more remarkable 
facts in the life history of various fish, such as the return of king salmon to the 
streams in which they were hatched, and the spawning of grunion on moon- 
light nights in the sand at the time of highest tide. The eggs hatch at the 
next tide of the same height, which comes ten or twelve days later, the young 
fish popping out of the egg as soon as it is washed out by the water. The eggs 
can live until another high tide a month later. 

J. W. SpeNcER: Observations on Colorado elk herds—During the ,past year 
occurred the first open season on elk for thirty years in four counties in 
Colorado. At the time there was much adverse comment in the newspapers 
based on the supposition that the elk, which had become very tame, would be 
slaughtered in large numbers. It was found that a day or two of hunting 
restored all their wariness and vigilance. About 500 young are born per year 
in the counties concerned, and the total number killed was less than this. 
The region was overstocked, which forced the elk to do considerable damage 
to farm products. The speaker believes that with proper care and the pro- 
vision of sufficient natural winter range the elk can be preserved indefinitely 
in much of the western country. He considers that the practice of feeding 
hay to elk during the winter is in the long run harmful to the species. 


753RD MEETING 


The 753rd meeting of the Biological Society was held in the new assembly 
hall of the Cosmos Club November 15, 1930 at 8.10 p.m., with President 
Wetmore in the chair and 115 persons present. New member elected: Mrs. 
Jupson D. Coss. 

The regular program was as follows: 

F. G. AsHproox: Fur farming in Europe.—The speaker gave an account 
of the International Fur-Trade Exposition and Congress held in Leipzig last 
May, at which he represented the United States, and of his observations on 


———SSS______ cr 


96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5 


the breeding and marketing of fur animals in Europe. Fur farming is best 
developed in Norway, Sweden, Germany, and France, but cannot yet be 
considered an important source of supply for raw furs. The production of 
rabbits for meat and fur is further advanced than that of other animals. 
The speaker also exhibited moving picture films showing the fur trade of the 
United States from the trapping of wild animals and the breeding of fur © 
animals on farms to the finished product. 

MELBOURNE WARD, Australian Museum: Natural history of the Barrier 
Reef of Australia (illustrated) —The speaker gave an account of the general 
features of the fauna of the Barrier Reef with particular reference to that of 
Northwest Isle in the Capricorn group, illustrating his talk with colored slides 
and moving pictures showing the characteristic animals. 


754TH MEETING 


The 754th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club 
November 29, 1930 at 8.10 p.m., with President WmTmorsg in the chair and 
165 persons present. New members elected: E. P. Coztatum, H. W. Gra- 
HAM, ROBERT OVERING. 

A. WETMORE announced that the new reptile house at the Zoological Park 
will probably be ready for occupancy early in the coming year. 

The regular program was as follows: 

H. M. Situ: Some new and curious Siamese fishes (illustrated) —The 
speaker exhibited numerous excellent drawings of new species of Siamese fish 
prepared by native artists, and described the habits of some interesting species. 
The climbing perch climbs trees only when their roots or trunks are in the 
water. It can pass over the ground between bodies of water, moving with a 
jerky motion. It has a special chamber over the gills permitting it to breathe 
air directly in case of need. 

The shooting fish captures insects perched near the water by shooting a 
drop of water from its mouth, or if necessary a series of drops. Its effective 
range is about 1 m., and it can eject water to a distance of 4m. The speaker 
has occasionally seen lizards knocked into the water by a drop ejected by the 
fish and has twice seen cigarettes in the hands of people on verandas over the 
water put out. The fish has a long narrow lower jaw, and forcibly compresses 
its gill covers while the mouth is held open, ejecting water held at the back of 
the gill cavity. Its eyes function very well in the air. 

A large number of species of the codfish group occur, some up to 3 m. long. 
In several species the eggs are incubated in the mouth of the male, which 
takes six or seven weeks. The eggs are about 1 cm. in diameter and as many 
as 49 have been found in a fish’s mouth. During this period the fish cannot 
eat and becomes very thin. In one case the speaker found a second batch of 
eggs was taken in before the first batch had hatched. It is possibly an adap- 
tation to prevent the loss of the eggs in the very muddy river bottom. 

G. M. Dyort: Motion pictures of jungle life (illustrated).—The speaker 
showed moving pictures taken in Assam, Ecuador, and Central Brazil. The 
pictures from Assam consisted mostly of romenkaole views of tigers, showing 
them sleeping by their prey, interrupting a feast of vultures on a carcass, and 
crossing a stream. Those from Ecuador were devoted principally to enlarged 
views of living insects of various orders. The pictures from central Brazil 
showed the speaker and his companions at different points on their expedition 
in search of FawcnurTt, the English explorer. 


MARCH 4, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 97 


755TH MEETING 


The 755th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club 
December 13, 1930 at 8.10 p.m., with President WrTmorse in the chair and 


125 persons present. ‘The President announced the election of Dr. Wm. R.: 


Maxon as one of the board of trustees of the Permanent Funds. 

A. WETMORE gave briefly the results of his recent work on Pleistocene bird 
remains from Florida. He has identified 66 species, apparently the largest 
number of fossil forms yet found at any locality in the United States. 

The regular program was as follows: 

MELBOURNE WARD, Australian Museum: Wanderings in North Australia 
(illustrated) —The speaker described the fauna and natives of Thursday 
Island, Murray Island, and the region about Albany Passage, illustrating his 
talk with still and motion pictures, and concluded with a moving picture of a 
native dance in which he took part, accompanying the picture with a native 
chant. 

C. W. Stizes: Js international zoological nomenclature practicable? Report 
on Padua Congress.—The speaker gave a general review of the development of 
the International Rules of Nomenclature and especially a history of the Berlin 
agreement of 1901, according to which the unanimous approval on the part of 
the Commission at the meeting was prerequisite to the presentation to the 
Congress of any proposal regarding the Rules. 

He then reported on the meeting at Padua, especially on the adoption of the 
Horn resolution by the Congress on the basis, not of unanimous recommenda- 
tion by the Commission, but by majority vote in the Section on Nomenclature. 
He contended that the action by the Congress was (a) invalid from a parlia- 
mentary standpoint, (b) contrary to all precedents in nomenclature from 1898 
to 1930, (c) contrary to the spirit and effect of the 1901 Berlin Agreement, 
(d) contrary to the words of the same except that the Horn resolution was 
presented as a “‘definition’”’ while in effect it amends, (e) contrary to the 
By-laws of the Commission, (f) contrary to the Padua 1930 vote 14 to 1 in the 
Commission on Nomenclature against Proposition 1930A, (g) a proposition 
even more radical than proposition 1930A which has been consistently opposed 
by American zoologists, (h) that it makes procedure in nomenclature subject 
to a chance majority vote (and on any motion suddenly introduced from the 
floor, without international notice) determined by the geographical locality 
of the meeting of the Congress, and (7) makes the Rules of Nomenclature 
subject to sudden and recurrent (three to five year) changes, thus making them 
unstable and without reasonable protection to the views of the minority 
present or to the views of countries and specialties not represented or poorly 
represented at the Congress. 

He suggested that the Biological Society call a meeting of various American, 
especially Washington, members of committees on nomenclature to consider 
the situation and to make recommendations. (Author’s abstract.) 

S. F. Buake, Recording Secretary. 


756TH MEETING 


The 756th meeting of the Biological Society was held in the new assembly 
hall of the Cosmos Club January 10, 1931 at 8.10 p.m., with President Wet- 
MORE in the chair and 135 persons present. New members elected: Doris 
M. Cocuran, ALMA RUTLEDGE. 

FRANK THONE presented the following report on the so-called autosynthetic 
cells recently exhibited by Dr. GzorGr W. Criue before the American Asso- 


Ss 


98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5 


ciation for the Advancement of Science——Dr. CriLte made three extracts 
from living protoplasm. Ether took out the lipoids; saline solutions removed 
proteins; after ashing the residue, water took up minerals. These extracts 
were remixed and they reunited in more or less definite proportions, resem- 
bling protoplasm. Small units were formed resembling some of the protozoa. 
These units seemed to respire, to assimilate proteins, to reproduce by division, 
to respond to poisons, and to have several other reactions similar to that of 
protoplasm. They were without the structure characteristic of cells. 

The regular program was as follows: 

H. F. PrytHercu: Spawning, setting and development of the oyster (illus- 
trated).—The most critical period in the life history of the oyster is the setting, 
during which the fully developed larva cements itself to some clean submerged 
surface such as old shells or stones and then undergoes a metamorphosis into 
a spat and adult oyster. A study of the setting reaction under natural condi- 
tions in Milford Harbor, Conn., showed that it occurred during the low water 
stage of the tide, or, in other words, when river discharge had its greatest 
effect on the physical and chemical condition of the water over the oyster 
beds. Experiments with oyster larvae under controlled laboratory condi- 
tions showed that changes in temperature, salinity, hydrogen ion concentra- 
tion, oxygen content, CO: tension, and water pressure would not induce in a 
single instance the setting reaction. However, if in reducing the salinity, 
river water was used instead of distilled water, the larvae gave a positive 
setting reaction, which indicated that there was some substance in the river 
water which served to stimulate and control their attachment and metamor- 
phosis. Further experiments involving variations in the amount and propor- 
tion of the cations and anions of the neutral salts were found to be ineffective 
in producing setting of the larvae, as were also the compounds of iron, zinc, 
tin, lead, aluminum, and silver. The only element of those tested which 
produced a positive setting reaction was copper in the form of a pure metal or 
as a carbonate, sulphate, or chloride. This heavy metal was effective in 
concentrations of one part copper to 5 million or 10 million parts of sea water 
and initiated almost immediately the setting process. In the river water, 
copper was found to be present in relatively this same amount and is appar- 
ently the specific element that is necessary for the attachment, metamorphosis 
and survival of the oyster. River water from which the copper had been 
removed by precipitation and filtration was no longer effective in producing 
setting. 

Copper plays an important part in the respiratory processes of the oyster, 
and its assimilation by the larva would serve to increase the oxygen-carrying 
capacity of the blood and release cells during metamorphosis for carrying 
out this function, both of which would greatly facilitate its rapid growth and 
development into the adult form. Though copper, like other heavy metals, 
may have a beneficial and stimulating effect in infinitesimal amounts, it will 
in slightly higher concentrations quickly produce cytolysis and death of the 
oyster larva. 

These studies indicate that in the development, distribution, and survival 
of marine animals, traces of certain mineral elements in their environment are 
of considerable biological significance and may constitute some of the chief 
limiting factors. 

By the use of copper in the form of a pure metal or salt, it was possible in 
1928 to observe in detail for the first time the setting and metamorphosis of 
the oyster larva, a brief description of which has been given in Bureau of 
Fisheries Document No. 1068. (Author’s abstract.) 


MARCH 4, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 99 


R. A. Nessit: Bzological aspects of conservation of marine fishery resources, 
New York and New Jersey (illustrated) —The chief cause of fluctuations in 
marine fisheries is virtual failure to reproduce in many or most years, with 
occasional great success. When successful spawning occurs, the whole in- 
crease in abundance constitutes a surplus available to the fishery, for success- 
ful reproduction is, within wide limits, independent of the size of the spawning 
reserve. Studies of the scup in New Jersey have shown that its fluctuations 
in abundance are largely due to variation in success of reproduction and that 
it is not in need of protection. Studies of squeteague, known also as weakfish, 
gray trout, and sea trout, have shown that its fluctuations in numbers are due 
to more complex causes. The fishery does not take a fair cross-section of the 
population, suggesting the existence of reserve stocks not ordinarily available 
to the fishery. The absence of yearling squeteague north of Virginia together 
with their abundance south of Delaware Bay suggests that northern stocks 
seldom succeed in reproducing and are maintained by migration from southern 
nursery grounds. ‘This is supported by studies indicating failure of spawning 
in Delaware Bay in 1929 and 1930. Pending further studies, no additional 
restrictions of the fishery for squeteague are recommended. (Author’s 
abstract.) 

W. B. Bet: Reestablishment of muskoxen in Alaska (illustrated).—The 
speaker reviewed action leading up to the granting of an appropriation of 
$40,000 by Congress for the purpose of securing a herd of muskoxen to be 
placed in Alaska. As soon as the funds were assured, steps were taken to 
secure the desired animals from northeastern Greenland through a dealer 
in Norway who sends expeditions into this region. Thirty-four animals were 
obtained which were shipped by way of Norway to New York. They were 
kept in quarantine for a month at the Bureau of Animal Industry Quarantine 
Station at Athenia, N. J. They were changed abruptly from the native 
feed, which they had been given en route, to alfalfa hay, which they ate with 
apparent relish and upon which they continued to thrive. At the close of the 
quarantine period they were shipped by express to Seattle, thence by boat 
to Seward, Alaska, where they were placed in box cars and shipped via the 
Alaska Railroad to the Biological Survey Experiment Station at College, near 
Fairbanks, Alaska. 

A short motion picture film was shown of the animals taken a few days after 
their arrival at College, showing them apparently content in the Experiment 
Station inclosure where they are being held. The original cireumpolar distri- 
bution of muskoxen and their relatives was traced, showing a vivid contrast 
with their present limited distribution and numbers in northeastern Green- 
land, a few Arctic islands, and a herd of about 250 animals on the Thelon 
Reservation in Canada. The subject was further illustrated by a motion 
picture film entitled, The Arctic patrol, which was made available through the 
courtesy of O. 8. Fryniz, Director of the Northwest Territories & Yukon 
Branch, Department of Interior, Ottawa, in which were shown remarkably — 
fine pictures of muskoxen taken at Devon Island by the expedition sent out 
by the Canadian government in 1929. 

The herd of muskoxen is being established in Alaska for experiments in 
feeding, breeding, and management, and in determining possibilities for 
their production as a source of meat and other valuable products. (Author’s 
abstract.) 

A. A. DoouittTLE, Recording Secretary pro tem. 


100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY 


219TH MEETING 


The 219th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club October 1, 1929. 
Program: C. 8. Scorretp: The effect of boron on citrus in California (illus- 


‘trated).—In 1918 attention was focused on the toxic effects of boron on field 


crops in this country through its presence in potash salts from California used 
as fertilizers in the East. In 1927 it was found that boron in irrigation waters 
in California was causing injury to citrus and walnuts in that State. A survey 
of irrigation supplies and of tree crops in southern California has shown that 
boron occurs in all of the irrigation waters from 0.1 ppm. to 7.0 ppm. of 
elemental boron. Where the concentration exceeds 0.5 ppm. in the irrigation 
water there is usually some evidence of injury in the leaves of lemons and 
walnuts. As the concentration increases more crops are injured until at 7.0 
ppm. very few tree crops are free from symptoms of injury. These con- 
centrations refer to the irrigation supply. The concentration of boron in the 
soil solution is usually five to eight times as high as in the irrigation water. 
The symptoms of boron injury appear in the leaves, discoloring or killing the 
leaf tissue and often causing premature shedding. These symptoms may be 
confirmed by determining the boron content of mature leaves. In lemons the 
normal boron content of dried leaves is 50 to 100 ppm.; where boron injury 
occurs the boron content may be ten to twenty times that much. It has not 
been found that boron toxicity from these low concentrations is manifested in 
other parts of the plants. The indications are that boron injury occurs 
through derangement of the processes of translocating the products of photo- 
synthesis in the leaf tissues. Boron in irrigation water above very low con- 
centrations causes injury to a number of perennial crop plants. The indicated 
remedy is to locate the sources of boron contamination and withhold the high- 
boron waters from the general supply or divert them to other uses. As to 
whether or not boron in low concentrations is essential to plant growth, the 
evidence is also fairly conclusive. There seems to be no doubt that boron 
is a normal constituent of practically all the higher plants and that in most 
cases where the matter has been carefully tested these plants grow better 
when boron is present in low concentrations in the nutrient solution than when 
it is absent or occurs as a mere trace. Culture experiments with a wide 
variety of plants have shown that better growth is obtained when the nutrient 
solution contains 0.2 to 0.5 ppm. of boron than when the concentration is in 
the order of 0.05 ppm. or less. All of the crop plants so far tested take up 
boron readily when it is available in the nutrient solution and the quantity 
absorbed is at least approximately proportional to the concentration in that 
solution. (Author’s abstract.) 

E. B. Lampert: Studies onthe relation of temperature tothe growth, parasitism, 
thermal death points, and control of Mycogone perniciosa.—The cardinal tem- 
peratures for the growth of M. perniciosa were found to be 8°C., 24°C., and 
32°C. The most vigorous growth was made between 21°C. and 28°C., which 
is considerably higher than the range of temperatures in which mushrooms are 
usually cultivated. When the casing soil was infested with an abundance of 
innoculum there was 100 per cent infection at 21°C. and 15°C., but only oc- 
casional diseased specimens appeared at 10°C. The pathogene was killed 
by prolonged exposure to moderately high temperatures. It was suggested 
that commercial growers might be able to eradicate Mycogone from their 
casing soil by subjecting this soil to the high temperatures generated in 
mushroom houses while the manure is going through with its final heat. 
(Author’s abstract.) : 


MARCH 4, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 101 


The meeting was followed by the annual meeting and the election of officers. 
H. B. Humpurey was elected president; GEorcE M. Darrow, vice president; 
Marion ZENER, treasurer; L. H. FLINT, recording secretary; N. R. Smirx, 
corresponding secretary. 


220TH MEETING 


The 220th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 5, 1929. 
Program: M.¥F. Warner: The pathological tulip. 
F.L. Muurorp: Larly-flowering hardy chrysanthemums. 
D. N. SHommMaxker: Fall flowers of spring-flowering groups (illus- 
trated). 
K. A. Ryerson: Bamboos. 
Davin GrirFitus: How we make more bulbs (illustrated). 

The last paper (the retiring presidential address) was a discussion of 
methods of propagation in Narcissus, Tulipa, Hyacinthus, Liliwm, Muscari, 
Chionodoxa, Puschkinia, Trillium, Brodiaea, Tigridia, Ornithogalum, and a few 
others. Contrary to the general impression, propagation by seed is one of the 
most important methods of increasing stocks of bulbs. It is not only the most 
important method in some genera but is used in nearly all and is the only 
method employedinsome. Lilies are propagated by several methods. Some 
are reproduced by seed only, while scale, layered stem, stem bulblet, stem 
bulbil, and division of bulbs contribute to increase stocks, some species 
being adapted to one and some to other methods. The propagation of the 
hyacinth was described as natural and artificial. The former includes the 
seed method, used in producing new varieties mainly, and division of the bulb 
employed in the Roman and a few seminaturalized American strains. The 
artificial methods consist in scooping, scoring, and coring, the two former 
being universally employed in commercial production. The production of 
bulb stock by seed was discussed in detail, and the methods employed in 
handling lily and other bulb seed under open-field conditions at the U. S. 
Bulb Station, Bellingham, Washington, were described. Whenever this form 
of reproduction is applicable in increasing stocks it is the cheapest method 
known. (Author’s abstract.) 


221sT MEETING 


The 221st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club December 3, 1929. 

Program: Neti E. STEVENS: Forecasting the keeping quality of cranberries 
(illustrated). 

W. T. Swincte: First American visit to date regions of Morocco (including 
2-reel film on “‘Pollination and pruning of date palms in North Africa’’). 


222ND MEETING 


The 222nd meeting was held at the Cosmos Club January 7, 1930. 

Program. P.L. Ricker: Motion pictures of eastern wild flowers. 
J. E. McMurtrey: Some malnutrional diseases of tobacco 
(illustrated). 
P.S. GattsorFr: Réle of living matter in the chemistry of the ocean. 


SPECIAL MEETING 


On January 15th a special meeting of the Botanical Society was held at the 
Cosmos Club to hear Dr. A. E. Dovetass, Director of the Steward Observa- 
tory of the University of Arizona on Tree rings and climate (illustrated). 


102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 5 


223RD MEETING 


The 223rd meeting was held at the Cosmos Club February 4, 1930. 
Program: H. Mrrcaur: Willow scab. 
R. F. Griaes: A remarkably preserved fossil palm (illustrated). 
W. uf Dieu: Ephelis, a cause of floret sterility in grass (illus- 
trated). 
R. D. Ranps: The Java meetings of the Pacific Science Association 
and the International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists (illus- 
trated by a 3 reel film). 


224TH MEETING 


The annual dinner of the Botanical Society was held at Meridian Mansions 
Hotel on the evening of March 4, 1930. Reindeer steak was served with 
Department of Agriculture specialties. The dinner was followed by the 
regular program. 

H. L. Westover: Forage-crop explorations in Russia and Turkestan (illus- 

trated). 

W. E. WHITEHOUSE: Observations on Persian horticulture (illustrated). 


225TH MEETING 


The 225th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club April 1, 1930. 
Program: R. R. Huu: On a thousand hills (one-reel moving picture from 
the Forest Service). 
A. $. Hitrcucock: A botanical trip to South and East Africa 
(illustrated).—As the guest of the South African Branch of the 
British Association for the Advancement of Science, the speaker reached Cape 
Town July 19, 1929, having had opportunity to botanize a few hours on the 
islands of Teneriffe and St. Helena. During the meetings at Cape Town 
excursions were made to the surrounding region. Though it was winter many 
plants were in bloom. A two-day excursion on a special train through the 
Karoo allowed botanists to examine the curious xerophytic flora of this arid 
region. At the close of the meetings there was an excursion to Victoria Falls 
and other points in Southern Rhodesia, the members living on the special train 
for twelve days. ‘The Victoria Falls of the Zambesi River are 420 feet high 
and a mile and a quarter wide. Stops were made at Motopos Hills and at the 
Zimbabwe Ruins. The excursion ended at Beira in Portuguese East Africa. 
A short stop at Zanzibar gave opportunity to make a good collection on the 
island. Landing at Tanga in Northern Tanganyika the speaker visited 
Amani Agricultural Institute, then went to Moshi and Marangu, whence he 
ascended Mt. Kilimanjaro to the limit of vegetation, about 14,000 feet. The 
alpine grasses belong to such temperate genera as Festuca, Poa, Deschampsia 
and Agrostis. He next visited Nairobi, whence a two-day motor trip was 
made to the vicinity of Mt. Kenya, though there was not time for the ascent. 
Through the courtesy of Government officials a trip through Uganda was 
arranged, crossing Lake Victoria to Entebbe, thence to Kampala and Jinja 
with one-day stops at several places to collect. The grasses collected in 
South Africa were only 112, it being winter, but in the more northerly regions 
grasses were more plentiful, those of the alpine regions being of especial 
interest. In all, including Teneriffe and St. Helena, 1184 numbers of grasses 
were collected. (Author’s abstract.) 
L. H. Furnt, Recording Secretary. 


OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS 


“THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND 
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS 


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Saturday, March 7 The Biological Society. 

Tuesday, March 10 The Institute of Electrical Engineers. 
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a _ The Medical Society. 
r beret March 12 The Chemical Society. 
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Vou. 21 | Marcu 19, 1931 No. 6 


GEOPHYSICS.—Shaping the earth.:. Witu1aAmM Bowig, United States 
Coast and Geodetic Survey. _ 


THE CRUST OF THE EARTH 


It is generally recognized that the earth has had a surface of solid 
material for something like a billionandahalf years. At the beginning 
of this time, the earth’s surface was irregular and there have been 
vertical and horizontal changes occurring continuously during this 
long interval. These changes have been due to erosion and sedimenta- 
tion and to forces which are acting on the materials forming the outer 
fifty or one hundred miles of the earth. 

If the earth’s material were in a liquid or highly plastic condition, 
and if there were no rotation, its surface would bea truesphere. With 
such a body undergoing rotation, the surface would be a spheroid. 
It has been found by geodetic measurements that the shape of the mean 
sea level surface approximates very closely a true spheroid. The 
deviations between the spheroid and the water surface, or geoid, are 
probably not greater than 100 meters. These forms are, of course, 
due to the continuous gravitational attraction of the particles of the 
earth for each other. The earth’s surface is irregular because of the 
presence of material of different densities near the earth’s surface. 
Under the continents the densities are less than they are for the 
material under the oceans. There is rigidity in the outer portion of 
the earth for otherwise there would be a slumping down of the high 
areas and the moving material would fill up valleys and ocean basins 
and bring the earth’s surface to a true spheroid. 


1 Presidential address delivered before the AcapEMy, January 15, 1931. Received 
February 9, 1931. 


103 


> --aeb b+ - a — <a 


104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 6 


FORMATION OF OCEANS AND CONTINENTS 


One of the most interesting problems of geology involves the 
formation of oceans and continents. Some geologists will say that 
this is a subject that need not be considered for we may accept oceans 
and continents as having come into being prior to the present geological 
age and that our attention should be given to the problem of unfolding 
the geological record since the beginning of sedimentation. The mind 
of a human being cannot be confined to any particular subject or 
group of subjects nor to any particular phase of a subject. Itis 
bound to consider any question that presents itself. 

It does seem very strange that we should have great masses of 
material standing above sea level, as continents and islands, and great 
troughs or basins below the waters of the oceans. We have enough 
geodetic evidence to prove conclusively that the ocean bottoms are 
depressed because of the greater density of the material in the crust 
below them, and that the continental and island masses stand above 
sea level because the density of the material in the crust below them is 
less than normal; but how could these abnormal densities have arisen? 
Why is it that under the continents we have a layer, which some claim 
is about twenty miles in thickness, of light rocks called granites, while 
under the oceans we have no granites? 

There have been many explanations offered as to why we have oceans 
and continents, but the only one that appeals to me as having decided 
merit is that advanced by Osmond Fisher. About forty years ago he 
wrote a book entitled, ‘‘Physics of the Earth’s Crust,’’ which contains 
much material of great value. He has a chapter on the possible 
erosion of oceans and continents in which he discusses Darwin’s idea 
that the moon at one time was thrown off from the earth. Darwin’s 
discussion of the birth of the moon was more or less an academic one 
and he made no suggestion as to what was the condition of the earth 
at the time that this birth occurred, but one is led to believe by 
Darwin’s writings that he had in mind a fluid earth. Fisher believed 
that there was an outer solid shell on the earth at the time that the 
moon was formed and that the earth lost much of the outer granite 
shell at that time. The places from which the crustal material was 
thrown off were filled with sub-crustal material, but the light granite 
occupied greater depth than the heavier sub-crustal material which 
replaced it. In consequence, the healed scars had surfaces which were 
lower than the surfaces of the portions of the crustal material which 
remained. 

Darwin’s hypothesis is based on the idea that the earth was rotating 


MARCH 19, 1931 BOWIE: SHAPING THE EARTH 105 


very rapidly and that as it slowed down to such a rate of rotation as 
would make the tides, caused by the attraction of the sun, synchronize 
with the natural period of vibration of the earth, there would be an 
accumulation of tidal effect which would make the earth’s mass 
unstable. Darwin estimated that at the time of, or just before, the 
disruption, the major axis of the earth was about twice the length 
of the minor axis. This would mean that the earth’s surface must 
have been increased by approximately fifteen millions of square miles. 
The solid crust, which at the time of the birth of the moon must have 
been thirty or forty miles in thickness, could not have stretched over 
this increased surface but would have been fractured and torn apart 
with great gaps between the crustal blocks. It may be that this 
distortion just prior to the birth of the moon had more to do with the 
scattering of the remaining crustal material over the earth’s surface 
than the actual disruption. 

It is rather interesting to look at a globe and note that the two 
coasts of the Atlantic are so nearly parallel that they remind one of the 
shores of a great river. Wegener has advanced a theory that North 
and South America broke away from the rest of the continental masses 
and moved westward during recent geological times. This is a very 
interesting theory which has many advocates and also many oppo- 
nents. Iam rather inclined to think that there are difficulties in the 
Wegener hypothesis which are very hard to explain away. It seems to 
me that the Fisher idea of the birth of the moon gives us a rather 
logical explanation of the creation of oceans and continents, and the 
strongest point of this theory is that it does no violence to isostasy. 

It is certain that the earth’s surface was irregular at the beginning 
of the sedimentary age, for without irregularities, such as we now 
have, the water of the oceans would have covered the whole earth’s 
surface to a depth of approximately 9,000 feet if the amount of water 
was the same as now. With all of the land area covered by water, 
there could have been no erosion and sedimentation, such as we have 
had for a period of approximately one and one-half billions of years. 


KNOWN FACTS ABOUT THE EARTH 


The earth should be treated like any material structure which 
comes under our observation for explanation or analysis. No one, of 
course, can give us the true explanation of how the earth came into 
being or state accurately what has been going on to change its surface 
configuration. But we have now at hand a number of facts which 
should enable us to arrive at some logical conclusions. We know, of 


106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 6 


course, the earth’s shape and size, the portions of its surface covered 
by land and water, its average density, and the density of its surface 
material. We also know that the temperature increases with depth. 
We know that there are many earthquakes occurring annually and 
that there is no area which is entirely free from them. Most of the 
quakes are microscopic in their intensity, but we are reasonably 
certain that, with few exceptions, they result from breaking rock and, 
therefore, there must be forces within the earth large enough to cause 
such breaking. 

We know that there has been a tremendous amount of erosion and 
sedimentation during the present era, which is called the sedimentary 
age of the earth. It is certain that the earth’s surface was irregular 
at the time that sedimentary rocks began to be formed, for without an 
irregular surface there could have been no running water, and without 
running water there could have been no erosion and sedimentation. 
Of course, no one knows whether the amount of water that is on the 
earth has been constant or variable, but it is reasonably certain that 
land has been exposed above the waters of the ocean for about a 
billion and a half years. This is an estimate that is frequently used 
by students of the earth and it seems to be generally accepted as of the 
order of magnitude of the period of time that has elapsed since the 
formation of the first sedimentary rocks. 

Geologists tell us that practically all of the exposed areas of the 
earth have at some time in the geological past been below sea level. 
These areas are now at varying distances above sea level and, hence, 
their change in elevation, with respect to sea level, must have been 
due to an actual lifting up of the land areas rather than a decrease in 
the amount of water of the earth. If the latter had been the cause 
for the changes in elevation, there would be uniformity in the elevations 
of exposed strata. 

The isostatic investigations indicate that the solid or rigid material 
of the earth extends only to a depth of approximately 60 miles below 
sea level. Some investigators are of the opinion that the depth to 
which the solid rock extends is very much smaller than that. The 
interior of the earth acts as if it were plastic to long continued stresses. 
The earth has an outer shell which rests upon a plastic interior. A 
disturbance of the isostatic equilibrium leads to horizontal and vertical 
changes in the earth’s surface. Some areas go down under the weight 
of sediments and other areas which have been undergoing erosion for 
long periods of time increase in elevation. There is also a rising up of 


MARCH 19, 1931 BOWIE: SHAPING THE EARTH 107 


material that was once below sea level and a sinking down of areas 
which were once standing high above sea level. 

These and other known facts regarding the earth are the basis for 
the interpretation of the processes which have shaped its surface. 

There have been many theories advanced as to why the earth has an 
irregular surface. Such theories may be considered as mere guesses, 
for no one can reproduce today the forces, resistances and temperatures 
which must have been involved when the earth came into being or 
when its surface was changed from one of fairly uniform elevation to 
one which has the great differences in elevation that are seen today. 

Mineralogists tell us that the continents are underlaid by granite, 
and that granite is absent from the crust under the ocean. Granite 
has asmaller density than that of the basalts which underlie the oceans. 
Originally the earth must have had the granite or light material lying 
over its surface like a huge blanket of fairly uniform thickness. Why 
is it that now the granite is absent from such large portions of the 
earth’s surface? There are certainly no known forces that could push 
the granite up into isolated masses. Gravity would have resisted such 
piling up and if forces had been sufficiently great to force the granite 
into separate masses, these masses of crushed rock would have slumped 
down soon after the forces had ceased to operate. 


ISOSTASY 


It was a geologist, the famous C. E. Dutton of the United States 
Geological Survey, who coined the word ‘sostasy in an address, entitled 
On some of the major problems of physical geology, at a meeting of the 
Philosophical Society of Washington in 1889. Dutton discussed 
some of the major problems of geology, including, of course, the 
formation of mountains and the effect of the tremendous amount of 
erosion and sedimentation. He came to the conclusion that the 
shifting of material caused stresses which could not be withstood by 
the strength of the earth’s materials. He felt that there must be a 
sagging down of the earth’s surface under the weight of the sediments 
and arising up of the surface where erosion had carried material away. 
He stated that in his opinion mountains are not extra loads added to 
the earth’s crust but that they are due to lighter than normal material 
in the crust below them. In effect he outlined what might be called a 
flotation hypothesis, that is, that the continents were floating in heavier 
material just as ice floats in water. A corollary of this hypothesis of 
Dutton’s is that the irregularities of the earth’s surface are due to 
deviations from normal densities in the outer portion of the earth. 


108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 6 


Under the oceans the density is greater and under the continents less 
than normal. 

At the beginning of the present century geodesists realized that 
isostasy was a subject of vital interest to them. Previously, for 
decades, they had been attempting to explain the abnormal behavior 
of the plumb line to which astronomical observations are referred and 
of the pendulum by which values of gravity are determined. 


THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH 


If the earth’s surface had no irregularities but conformed to a 
mathematical surface (an ellipsoid), then at any place on it the 
direction of gravity would be at right angles to a plane tangent to this 
ellipsoid at the point of observation. But the earth has an irregular 
surface and due to this irregularity the figure formed by the surfaces 
of the waters of the ocean and of the waters of sea level canals extended, 
in imagination, through the continents deviates from a true mathe- 
matical figure. This deviation is undoubtedly a maximum under the 
great mountain systems like the Himalayas and the Alps where the 
geoid, or water surface, is above the mathematical one. Conversely 
over the deepest parts of the ocean the geoid, or water surface, is 
probably depressed to the maximum amount below this spheroid. 
In any event, there is an angle between the water surface and the 
mathematical surface at any point at which astronomical observations 
may be made. This angle means a deviation of the direction of grav- 
ity, or the plumb line, and affects the observations for astronomical 
latitudes and longitudes accordingly. 


EFFECT OF TOPOGRAPHY ON GEODETIC DATA 


Geodesists had noticed this condition in a number of parts of the 
earth where surveying and mapping operations had been undertaken, 
and efforts were made to apply a correction for the influence of the 
irregularities of the surface. It was evident to each investigator that a 
mountain system, such as the Himalayas, would have an attractive 
effect on the plumb line at stations within a reasonable distance of it. 
Efforts were made to compute the effect of these great masses which 
lie above sea level, but when such corrections were applied it was 
found that they were larger than were necessary to bring the theoreti- 
cal and observed values into accord. The mountains, apparently, 
were lighter than normal but impossibly small densities would have 
to be assumed for the materials composing the mountains to bring the 
two values into exact agreement. 


MARCH 19, 1931 BOWIE: SHAPING THE EARTH 109 


Pratt and Airy working on geodetic data about the middle of the 
last century arrived at the conclusion that the reason why mountains 
and continents stand above sea level is because lighter materials lie 
below them. While they did not, so far as I am aware, make any 
definite statement that the abnormal densities could only extend to a 
moderate depth, yet this idea was implied in their statements regarding 
the deficiencies in densities that must lie below mountains and con- 
tinents. They advanced their ideas about seventy-five years ago 
but it is only within the last ten years that their ideas and those of 
Dutton, expressed forty-one years ago, have been accepted generally 
by students of the earth as a working principle in earth studies. 


VARIATIONS OF GRAVITY 


Geodesists have used geodetic data in the form of triangulation, of 
astronomical determinations of longitude and latitude, and of values of 
gravity to test this flotational hypothesis. It is the only method, so 
far as I am aware, by which the idea can be quantitatively tested. 
We have a direct measure of the extent to which the plumb line 
deviates from the line that is at right angles to the spheroid surface, - 
and a measure of the difference between the theoretical and observed 
values of gravity. The idea of isostasy can be tested by means of these 
data. 

If the earth were a true spheroid and there were no irregularities on 
its surface and if the densities along each radius were normal, gravity 
would increase slightly as one proceeded from the equator to one of the 
poles. The attraction of the earth at sea level would be about 1/200 
part greater at a pole than at the equator. Enough work has been 
done to prove conclusively that gravity does follow very definite laws. 
For instance, it changes on the average about one part in a million 
for a mile change in latitude. It changes one part in a million for 
about 10 feet change of elevation. These changes are perfectly 
normal, for the centrifugal force is a maximum at the equator and 
zero at the poles and, besides, the attraction at either pole is greater 
than it is at a point on the equator. Necessarily, too, a particle is 
attracted less by the mass of the earth when elevated than when it is 
exactly at sea level. 

It is not necessary to go into details regarding the geodetic tests of 
isostasy, for the methods used and the results obtained have all been 
set forth in a number of publications of geodetic organizations. It is 
sufficient to state that when isostasy is taken into account in Computing 
geodetic data, harmonious or practically harmonious results are 


110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 6 


obtained. By means of geodetic data it has been possible to determine 
the approximate depth below sea level to which these abnormal 
densities extend. ‘The most probable depth obtained from mountain 
and plateau stations of the United States is about 96 kilometers, 
approximately 60 miles, below sea level. This depth is confirmed by 
determinations of Mr. A. H. Miller of the Dominion Observatory at 
Ottawa, Canada, who found from analysis of gravity data at mountain 
stations in the western part of that country a depth also of approxi- 
mately sixty miles. 


COMPARISON OF PRATT AND AIRY HYPOTHESES 


There has been much discussion in literature on isostasy of the 
question as to whether the Pratt or the Airy hypothesis is the true one. 
Pratt postulated that the densities vary under the different classes of 
topography. Under the oceans, the density would be abnormally 
great, and under the continents, it would be abnormally small. Airy, 
on the other hand, suggested that the depth of compensation is very 
irregular and that crustal masses under the continents extend much 
farther below sea level than do such masses under the oceans. Under 
mountain areas these protuberances would be greater than under 
plateaus and valleys. 

We have not yet been able to prove which of the two hypotheses is 
the true one, since the application of either of them to gravity and 
deflection data gives about the same satisfactory results. However, 
looking at the matter from a purely physical standpoint, I am inclined 
to think that there are decided weaknesses in the Airy hypothesis and 
that the Pratt hypothesis is probably the true one. Perhaps with a 
greater accumulation of data we may in the future be able to show 
which one of these hypotheses is the better one. We should be able 
to derive a depth of compensation for each extensive mountain area 
and if the Airy hypothesis is the true one, then the higher the mountain 
area the greater should be the derived depth of compensation. When 
such mountain areas as the Andes and the Himalayas are covered by 
geodetic stations, it should be possible to make this test. 


ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING ISOSTATIC INVESTIGATIONS 


Necessarily, in carrying on such investigations as have been involved 
in the tests of isostasy, assumptions have to be made. ‘The assump- 
tions made by geodesists are approximately as follows: First, that 
isostasy is*complete or perfect for even quite limited portions of the 
earth’s crust; second, that there is a uniform distribution with respect. 
to depth of the compensating deficiencies of density under continents 


MARCH 19, 1931 BOWIE: SHAPING THE EARTH 111 


and of the excesses of densities under oceans, that is, that the com- 
pensation starts at sea level and extends uniformly approximately 
sixty miles to the lower limit of the crust; third, that the compensation 
is directly under the topographic feature and not spread out hori- 
zontally with respect to that feature; and fourth, that the density of 
the rock above sea level is 2.67. 3 

These assumptions are made merely for the convenience of the 
investigator. It would be practically impossible for him to assume 
anything but very simple conditions because of the very large amount 
of work involved in making the computations required for the tests. 
We do find that when these assumptions are made and corresponding 
corrections computed that the theoretical and actual values for the 
astronomical longitudes and latitudes and for values of gravity are 
brought very closely into agreement. There are some outstanding 
differences, and these must be a measure of the degree to which one or 
more of the assumed conditions are not true. The depth of compen- 
sation may not be a regular surface, it may be very much deeper under 
some parts of the continent than under others, and it may be deeper 
under the continents than under the oceans. The compensating 
deficiency of density under a mountain system may be confined to a 
rather narrow zone vertically and not extend throughout the thickness 
of the crust. The compensation may be distributed widely in a 
horizontal direction from the topographic feature, and deficient 
densities under land masses and excessive densities under ocean areas 
may not be sufficient to balance the irregularities of the earth’s surface 
in the regions studied. Finally, the density of surface rock is variable. 
Undoubtedly, all of these factors come in to cause the differences 
between the theoretical and actual values which we eall anomalies, 
but the anomalies are so small after the isostatic principle has been 
applied that investigators are inclined to believe that the principle of 
isostasy has been amply tested and proved. Some of them, and I am 
one, believe that the principal cause of the anomalies is the effect of 
abnormally heavy or light material near the earth’s surface and close 
to the astronomical or gravity stations. If we could find out the actual 
distribution of density in the earth’s materials for a depth of five or 
ten miles below the earth’s surface, I am confident that we anal 
reduce nearly all of the anomalies. 

This brings up the question as to whether or not it would be eae 
to discover what the geologists call structural features that are buried 
below the earth’s surface. This is a matter of great importance and 
may have a bearing on the search for petroleum and ores. The gravity 
survey conducted over this country indicates certain places where there 


112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 6 


are extra heavy or extra light masses of material fairly close to the 
earth’s surface. I do not know of any oil having been found, or 
drilling for oil having been undertaken, near any of our gravity stations 
as a result of our data, but I am sure that an intensive gravity survey 
would disclose structure that moh be of value in the oil and mining 
industries. 


SOME ISOSTATIC CONCLUSIONS 


The evidence seems to justify the conclusion that all mountain and 
plateau areas were at one time occupied by low lying portions of the 
earth’s surface on which great beds of sediments were laiddown. ‘Then. 
these areas were raised up to form either mountains or plateaus. If 
there was much distortion, mountains resulted, and if the area went 
up in a more or less uniform way, extensive plateaus were formed. 
What caused these uplifts is one of the outstanding problems of the 
science of geology. Many of the investigators of the past have 
postulated horizontal thrusts, while some, Dutton included, were 
inclined to favor a vertical movement as the predonunan one with 
horizontal movements as incidental. 

It is absolutely certain that the masses pushed up, whether by 
vertical or horizontal forces, are not extra loads added to the surface 
at what may be called the depth of isostatic compensation. ‘These 
masses above sea level are, of course, extra loads on the sea-level 
surface, but they cannot possibly be extra loads added to the imaginary 
blocks of the earth’s crust which are resting on the plastic sub-crustal 
material. If they were extra loads, this fact would be easily and 
clearly indicated by geodetic data in the form of deflections of the 
. vertical and values of gravity. The masses that appear above sea 
level are compensated for by the deficiency of density in the material 
lying below them. 

The zone within which the compensation of topographic features 
lies must be of limited depth. If it were otherwise, the computed 
effect of the compensation would be practically zero and the material 
above sea level would have full effect on the direction and force of 
oravity. 

It has been concluded from a study of the deflection data for the 
United States that the actual deflections of the vertical are on the 
average not more than about 10% of what they would be if the masses 
above sea level and the deficiency of the mass in the oceans were 
not compensated by deviations from normal densities in the crust 
below. This is the very strongest evidence possible in favor of 


MARCH 19, 1931 BOWIE: SHAPING THE EARTH 113 


isostasy and, also, in favor of the theory that the outer portion of the 
earth is rigid and strong. This rigid material, which has been found 
by geodesists to extend to an average depth of approximately sixty 
miles, will resist for extremely long times gravitational forces which 
tend to make the earth’s surface a true spheroid. The gravity data 
supplement the data derived from the deflection of the vertical in 
showing the existence of isostasy. 

Since areas of sedimentation and erosion and all plateau and moun- 
tain regions are now in isostatic equilibrium, it seems reasonably 
certain that they have been in equilibrium throughout the geological 
era. If this is true, we must conclude that there has been an actual 
uplift of the surface in some places and a down warping in others. 
These changes in the earth’s surface can occur only by vertical move- 
ments, due to changes in the density of the crustal or sub-crustal 
material, or to the action of horizontal forces. I am inclined to favor 
the former idea because it is rather difficult to see where horizontal 
forces of sufficient magnitude could originate. Since the sea level 
surface of the earth is at all places at right angles to the direction of 
gravity, it is difficult to see how any large horizontal component of the 
gravitational force could come into existence. 

I believe that there has been no collapsing of the outer shell of the 
earth on a shrinking nucleus. The outer solid shell of the earth must 
be of the magnitude of sixty miles in thickness and certainly at such a 
depth as sixty miles there could be no voids; the outer shell, or crust, 
of the earth must be in intimate contact with sub-crustal material 
and, therefore, there is no opportunity for the crustal material to 
collapse on a shrinking interior. Should the interior of the earth be 
losing heat and contracting in consequence, and should the crust of 
the earth not be losing heat and, therefore, remaining constant in 
volume, it is probable that the crust merely thickens locally as the 
nucleus contracts. Any changes in the volume of the nuclear material 
would be so exceedingly slow that the crustal material would yield 
locally and the crust would continue to be in contact with the nucleus 
around the whole earth. 


ISOSTATIC ADJUSTMENTS AND EARTHQUAKES 


If we accept the principle of isostasy, and it is a perfectly logical 
thing to do, then we are confronted with the problem of how to 
apply this principle in geological studies and investigations. It 
is especially important to apply the isostatic principle to the question 
of earthquakes. 


114. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 6 


They have been occurring for a billion years, more or less, and 
probably they will continue to occur as long as the earth has sunshine 
and rain. An earthquake is caused by the breaking of the outer 
portion of the earth’s material. Without the break there would be 
no elastic shock. Where the material of the earth is hard, brittle, 
and elastic, it will resist deformation due to a force acting on it until 
the force is greater than its strength and there will be a sudden yielding 
in the form of a rupture. Any elastic substance necessarily has 
vibrations when it is struck or broken, and that is exactly what happens 
to the earth when we have an earthquake. The rock is snapped or 
broken, and the elastic waves set up by the sudden rupture travel 
great distances. 

Records of earthquake waves are made with an apparatus called a 
seismograph. There are many of these instruments scattered over 
the earth’s surface and the number of earthquakes annually recorded 
on them has been recently estimated as 8,000. There are many 
quakes of such small intensity that their shocks are not received at the 
existing seismological stations. It is impossible to state how many 
earthquakes actually occur over the earth, but if I might make a 
guess, I would say from 30,000 to 40,000 a year. 

One of the implications from the proof of isostasy is that the outer 
portion of the earth is much stronger than the materials that le 
somewhat farther down. In order that the irregular surface of the 
earth may be maintained against the tremendous weight of masses of 
rock above sea level, this outer portion of the earth must be strong, 
that is, it must have a strength sufficient to prevent the continental 
masses slumping down and flowing into the ocean areas to fill up the 
basins. This strong material extends, according to geodesists, ap- 
proximately sixty miles below sea level. Below that the material 
must be lacking in strength and rigidity. It must yield to forces 
without breaking. As great masses of material are moved over the 
earth’s surface the balance of the crust is disturbed. The extra load 
caused by sediments must push down the crust beneath and this 
must force the sub-crustal material to move sidewise and some of it 
to push up the crust from where the eroded material came. The 
earth’s crust is like a sheet of ice on a pond or on the Arctic Ocean. 
The crust lies quietly on the interior part of the earth until something 
happens to disturb the equilibrium. Although the crust of the earth 
is composed of strong material, the strength is finite, surely not great 
enough to withstand the weight of the tremendous loads that have been 
shifted on the earth’s surface. It is, however, strong enough to main- 


% 


MARCH 19, 1931 BOWIE: SHAPING THE EARTH 115 


tain the irregular surface of the earth just because of the floating 
principle. 

Earthquakes have occurred probably in all parts of the earth. One 
cannot make an accurate estimate of the maximum size of the portion 
of the earth’s crust in which, throughout geological time, no earth- 
quakes have originated, but we see all about us evidences of uplift or 
subsidence of the earth’s surface. Hach continent has above sea level 
much sedimentary rock which must have been formed below tidal 
waters. These rocks in many cases are much tilted, curved, broken 
and crushed. It is reasonably certain that there has been an uplift 
of the earth’s surface rather than a decrease in the amount of ocean 
waters to cause these exposures. The best evidence that they have 
been pushed up is the fact that strata laid down in salt water in 
horizontal positions are now tilted at various angles from the hori- 
zontal. Then again, the same strata exposed in a number of widely 
separated places are found at different elevations above sea level. 
This it seems is an indication that there has been an actual uplift of 
the earth’s surface. Every one who has engaged in mining operations 
knows of the tremendous amount of faulting that has occurred in the 
rocks. <A coal seam will be followed for a certain distance and then it 
gives out. Later the same seam of coal may be found at a higher or 
lower elevation. The many fractures that are found in mines and at 
the earth’s surface lead one to the very definite conclusion that there 
has been much shifting of material in the geological past. Each one 
of these shifts, or changes, where a fracture has occurred, has probably 
caused an earthquake. 

The earth may be classified as a yielding body. It should not be 
classed as a failing structure. A soap-bubble or a glass ball, when 
subjected to stresses greater than its strength, will collapse, but it is 
impossible for the earth to collapse. The earth is like a solid rubber 
ball which will yield and change its shape to forces that are exerted 
upon it. The earth is a globe almost spherical, approximately 8,000 
miles in diameter. The number of cubic miles of material in the earth 
is great, but this large globe yields in a surprisingly easy manner to 
the forces that are acting upon it. 


OBJECTIONS TO THE CONTRACTION HYPOTHESIS 


Geologists and other students of the earth have for generations 
sought for the forces which may have disturbed the earth. Many 
ideas have been advanced and some of them have had wide acceptance. 
One of these is that the earth’s interior is losing heat rather rapidly, 


116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 6 


while the outer portion of the earth, the crust, is maintaining its 
temperature. In consequence, there is a shrinkage of the interior of 
the earth and a collapse of the crust, which causes earthquakes and 
elevates mountains and plateaus. This process is also held by some 
to be the cause of oceans and continents. It seems to me that a 
careful analysis of this hypothesis will lead one to the conclusion that 
it cannot be true. The earth has been likened to an apple or potato. 
Every one knows that a baked potato or a baked apple has wrinkles 
In its skin. The contraction hypothesis implies that the nucleus of 
the earth is like the interior of the apple or potato and that the crust 
of the earth is like the skin, but the skins of the apple and potato have 
practically no weight, and, therefore, during the cooking the shrinkage 
of the interior, due to loss of moisture, makes the skin wrinkle to fit the 
reduced size of the interior of the apple or potato. 

The crust of the earth certainly cannot be likened to the skin of 
the apple or potato. In the first place, the crust is about sixty miles 
in thickness and is composed of heavy rock. Then, again, this 
material is so heavy that no wrinkles could possibly form which would 
have voids under them like the voids under the wrinkles of the apple 
and potato. There can be no such thing as a buckling or crumpling 
of the earth’s crust on a shrinking interior. If the interior of the 
earth is losing heat, while the crust of the earth is maintaining its 
temperature, the loss of this heat must be so exceedingly slow that there 
can be no chance for stresses to accumulate to such an extent as to 
cause great horizontal forces. I believe that if in the course of geologi- 
cal time, measured by hundreds of millions of years, the earth’s interior 
should cool and contract, the crust would continue to be in contact 
with the interior and, therefore, the crust would merely be thickened 
rather than buckled into ridges and troughs. Much has been written 
against the contraction hypothesis, notably by Mellard Reade and 
Alfred Wegener. 


DIASTROPHIC FORCES 


There are no known forces which have their origin outside of the 
earth’s material which can exert horizontal stresses on the crustal 
material of the earth of such strength as to form mountains and 
plateaus and cause earthquakes. It is true that the attractive forces 
of the sun and moon are exerted on the earth, and, since the portion 
of the earth that is nearest to the sun or the moon is attracted more 
than the material that is farther away, astressisset up. This stress 
is not of sufficient magnitude, however, to rupture the material or to 


MARCH 19, 1931 BOWIE: SHAPING THE EARTH Wed 


make it move out of its normal place, except to the extent of a slight 
elastic deformation called the earth tide. These tide producing forces 
of the sun and the moon change phase every few hours as the earth 
turns on its axis. 

I think we can eliminate the attractive effect of the sun and the moon 
as being the cause of any geological phenomena involved in mountain 
forming, earthquakes, etc. Of course, the time of an earthquake on 
an island or near the continental coast may be decided by an excep- 
tional high or low water tide in the vicinity, but it is reasonably certain 
that the crustal material is brought nearly to the breaking point by 
some other cause and that the high or low tide supplies merely the 
small increment required to increase the stress beyond the breaking 
strength of the rock. The real causes of the major features of di- 
astrophism must lie within the earth itself. 

Much has been written in recent years about the effect of the heat 
resulting from radioactivity of certain minerals in the outer portion 
of the earth. This, it seems to me, may be a factor in earth move- 
ments, but I am inclined to think it is one of minor importance. In 
the first place, the radioactivity is largely confined to the granitic 
material which is supposed to be only from fifteen to twenty miles in 
thickness under the continents. There is no granite under the oceans, 
but some of the strongest earthquakes occur there and much of the 
ocean bottom is quite active from a geological standpoint. Broken 
ground with very steep slopes is found under the oceans, and many 
oceanic islands are due to volcanic activity. All of this implies that 
movements are going on in the crust under the oceans, and these 
surely cannot be due alone to the radioactivity of minerals. The 
basalts which are supposed to underlie the granites of the continental 
areas and to form the bottoms of the oceans have present in them 
some radioactive minerals but not in such large proportions as are 
present in the granites. | 

Again, we have the problem of accounting for physical or chemical 
activity that probably occurs even to the depth of sixty miles below 
sea level. Earth students, who have been writing on radioactive 
minerals and their effect on geological processes, are inclined to the 
opinion that the deep lying materials have practically no effect on 
surface changes. 

If we eliminate forces existing outside of the earth, forces dues to the 
supposed contraction of the earth’s nucleus and the collapsing of the 
crust, and forces due to the effect of radioactive minerals as major 
causes of earth movements, we must search for some other force that 
might be effective. 


118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 6 


We know that the temperature of the earth increases with depth. 
For the first two miles or less we have definite data from the deter- 
minations of temperatures in wells. There is a great variation in the 
rate at which the temperature increases with depth, but a fair average 
is 50°C. per mile. The temperature certainly continues to increase 
below the two mile depth, for we have many active volcanos in the 
world which emit cinders and lavas having temperatures of 1000°C. 
or more. Such temperatures would be found at a depth of approxi- 
mately twenty miles if the temperature gradient were about the same 
throughout that depth as it is near the surface. Whether the tem- 
perature keeps on increasing with depth down to the center of the 
earth, we cannot tell for there is no way to discover, even approxi- 
mately, what the temperature may be at great depths. A material 
may be at a temperature, which at the surface would be its melting 
point or even its boiling point, yet it probably would act like a strong 
solid when confined by the great pressures which must exist at con- 
siderable depths. A very hot interior of the earth, if there is little 
change in temperature from one period of time to another, will not 
exert any decided influence on the configuration of the earth’s surface. 
Change in heat, however, whether a decrease or increase, will exert 
force. It will cause expansion or contraction of materials, but the 
heat of the interior of the earth is changing so slowly that it cannot 
be a major cause of surface changes. One would be most unwise to 
assert that the heat of the interior of the earth, without any other 
influences acting, could not cause changes in elevation and geographic 
positions of points on the earth’s surface, but, if this interior heat is a 
primary cause of surface movements, no one, so far as I am aware, 
has given a very clear explanation as to how the changes are effected. 
I am rather inclined to think that we may eliminate the heat of the 
earth’s interior as the major cause of geological phenomena. This 
heat does affect those portions of the crust which are lowered by 
sedimentation or raised by erosion, but it is not the primary cause of 
surface movements. I believe we should look for something that is 
closer at hand and easier of understanding. 


EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION 


There is one process continuously active which is so simple that 
apparently its influence on surface phenomena has been ignored or 
even overlooked except by afew. This is the phenomenon of erosion. 
Vast quantities of water fall to the earth each year and presumably 
this has been going on continuously since the beginning of the sedi- 


MARCH 19, 1931 BOWIE: SHAPING THE EARTH 119 


mentary age of the earth, the one that we are now in. According to 
the best geological and geophysical evidence, the earliest sedimentary 
rocks were formed about a billion and ahalf yearsago. Itis absolutely 
impossible for sedimentary rocks to be formed without running water, 
and to have running water there must be sloping ground. A succession 
of sedimentary rocks has been formed during the past billion and a half 
years and for hundreds of millions of years there have been living 
creatures on the earth, so it seems perfectly logical to assume that 
rainfall must have occurred during all of that period. 

The average rainfall per year over the land surface of the earth is 
about thirty inches. Of course, there are regions where the rainfall is 
one hundred inches or more, but these areas are very restricted in size, 
and there are other areas, such as the great deserts, where there is no 
rain at all or only a very few inches. A rainfall of thirty inches a 
year amounts to about one mile in every two thousand years, and 
during the whole of the sedimentary age about 750,000 miles of rain 
could have fallen. This, of course, means that by evaporation and 
precipitation the ocean waters have been used over and over again. 
As the water of the ocean is evaporated, the mineral content remains in 
the ocean. When the water runs from the continental or island areas 
into the oceans it carries in suspension or solution some solid material. 
The solids are mostly in the form of salts. ‘The mineral content of the 
ocean waters that we now observe has been caused by this process of 
evaporation and precipitation throughout the sedimentary age. 

This transfer of water from the oceans to the continents and then 
back into the oceans would be of no consequence from a geological 
standpoint if it were not for the resulting erosion of the exposed 
surface of the earth. Much of the water runs directly to streams and 
rivers and eventually reaches tidal water, except in a few desert basins 
where the rivers have no outlet to the sea, but these latter are very 
unimportant. The water that runs to the séa carries much material 
in suspension. The earth’s surface is undergoing disintegration as the 
result of frost and chemical action. As soon as a particle is loosened 
from a rock, it is subject to transportation to some other place by 
wind or water. The effect of water in transporting material is believed 
to be far greater than that of wind. In any event tremendous amounts 
of material in suspension are carried by water to the streams and 
rivers. Another large part of the water that falls to the earth soaks 
into the ground and absorbs a certain amount of the mineral matter 
from the rocks. This water seeping through the rocks will eventually 
reach streams and rivers and then will flow to tidal waters carrying 
vast quantities of solid material with it. The combination of the 


120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 6 


material in suspension and in solution results in a large amount of 
continental matter that is transferred to sea areas each year. 

It has been estimated that in the United States the rate of erosion is 
approximately 1 foot in 9,000 years. Some areas, of course, have 
very much more rapid rates of erosion than others, but this is the 
average rate at which material is carried from the area of the United 
States as a whole to tidal waters. The rate of erosion for the other 
continental areas is probably just about the same as for our country. 
This may not seem to be a very rapid rate, for during historic times it 
would amount to only about one-half a foot. The average elevation 
of the United States is about 2,000 feet, and so to erode all of the 
material lying above sea level would require something like four 
thousand times the total length of the historic period. 

At this rate, however, something like thirty miles of erosion could 
have occurred during the sedimentary age. Of course, there has been 
no such amount of erosion as that. A particular exposed area that is 
undergoing erosion is worn down to sea level eventually and then 
erosion ceases, but it is rather remarkable that many areas which 
have been eroded down to sea level have in a later period been raised 
up again and thus other material has been subjected to erosion. 

It seems probable that the average elevation of the continental 
areas has never been very much higher or lower than now. I believe 
that if there has been any change, the average elevation has been 
getting gradually lower. This is because the continental matter 
carried to tidal waters is less dense than the sub-crustal matter which 
moves toward the continents to restore equilibrium. ‘The average 
elevation for all of the continental and island areas of the world is 
slightly more than 2,000 feet, less than one-half mile, but there are 
some parts of the earth where the elevations are three or four miles or 
more in height. The maximum elevation of the Himalayan Moun- 
tains is more than 29,000 feet, and there are mountain peaks in South 
America and Alaska which are 26,000 feet or more in elevation. ‘There 
are great plateaus which stand more than two miles above sea level. 
But these great elevations are offset by vast areas on continents and 
islands which are only slightly above sea level. The ocean basins 
have an average depth of approximately 10,00Gfeet. Itseems reason- 
ably certain that some of these areas have changed their depths during 
the sedimentary age. Some parts of the ocean bottoms have come 
up, while others have gone down, but I am of the opinion that the 
average difference in elevation of the ocean beds and of the continents, 
now about two and one-half miles, has not been much less than it is 
now, at any time during the sedimentary period. 


MARCH 19, 1931 BOWIE: SHAPING THE HARTH 121 


We ean now, I believe, get an idea as to where some of the force 
originates which changes the configuration of the earth’s surface. 
The water falling as rain carries off vast quantities of material in 
suspension and ‘solution. It unloads certain portions of the earth’s 
crust and overloads others. Some geologists have told us that as much 
as 30,000 feet, about six miles, of material have been eroded from 
some mountain areas. Then there are other areas on which as much as 
40,000 feet, or nearly eight miles, of sediments have been placed. 
The earth’s materials are not strong enough to resist yielding under 
these great negative and positive loads. There is a bending down of 
the crust under the sediments and a bowing up of the crust under the 
areas which have undergone great erosion. 

The movement of material within the first five or ten miles resulting 
from the loading and unloading by erosion and sedimentation is 
not asimple one. We donot have merely a slab of material which can. 
break or bend, but a shell approximately sixty miles in thickness 
completely encircling the earth. Any distortion or change in one 
part of this shell would have an effect on all other parts of it if the 
earth’s crust were of tremendous strength, but such is not the case. 
The crust must yield under comparatively small amounts of sedi- 
mentation and erosion. If this were not true, the geodetic data would 
certainly enable us to detect without difficulty the extent of the 
masses involved. An extra load of 1,000 feet of material over the 
Rocky Mountain area would show up at once in the gravity data. 
The absence of any large differences from normal conditions leads us 
to believe that there is surely no excess or deficiency of material for the 
whole Rocky Mountain region equivalent to a blanket 1,000 feet in 
thickness. A blanket of even 500 feet of material is greater than can 
be present as an undetected excess or deficient load for an extensive 
area. We, therefore, may conclude, I believe, that a blanket of 
surface rock 500 feet in thickness over a large surface area exerts a 
force that is great enough to make the crust beneath yield. This 
yielding at times is so slow that the rocks will merely be bent and 
deformed, and at other times it is so rapid as to cause rocks to break. 


THERMAL CHANGES IN CRUST 


Isostasy is a condition of rest. When the materials of the earth’s 
surface are carried in great amounts from one area to another during 
the process of erosion and sedimentation, the isostatic balance is 
disturbed. It is then that gravity comes into play and causes the 
sub-crustal material to move horizontally to restore the balance. 


122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 6 


We have evidence to show that as much as six or eight miles of sedi- 
ments have been deposited in the areas along the shores of an inland 
sea or the margin of an ocean. This load of material pushed the crust 
down into hotter regions. Each particle of crustal material reached a 
position several miles below the one it formerly occupied. The geo- 
isotherms were depressed with the crustal material. Eventually, 
probably millions of years after the cessation of the sedimentation, 
the geoisotherms returned to their normal positions. In doing so, the 
crustal material which had been depressed increased in temperature, 
perhaps as much as 400°C. in extreme cases. 

This increase in temperature, of course, expanded all of the crust 
below the sediments. ‘The expansion tended to be cubical, that is, 
in all directions, but the material involved was restrained from move- 
ment except in the upward direction; hence, the result of the expansion 
was an uplift of the earth’s surface. The amount of movement could 
not have been sufficient to form great mountain masses rising two or 
more miles high, but is it not possible that certain chemical or physical 
changes, other than normal expansion took place in the crustal material 
and that this independent expansion gave the added height to the 
uplifted surface? This idea is in complete harmony with isostasy and 
I believe it has much merit. 

When an area is undergoing erosion, it is not lowered at a rate 
comparable with the rate of erosion. If a thousand feet of material is 
eroded from a mountain area, the crust below will move upward by the 
influx of sub-crustal material which restores the equilibrium. The 
crust will presumably rise up 800 or 900 feet as a result of the 1,000 
feet of material taken from the surface. If a mountain area has an 
average elevation of about two miles, from five to ten miles of material, 
or even more, will have to be eroded away, if erosion is the only acting 
agent, before the area is brought to a low level where erosion prac- 
tically ceases. During this process every cubic yard of material in the 
crust below the erosion area will have been brought upward five or 
ten miles or more into colder regions. Eventually the geoisotherms, 
which have been bowed upward, will resume their normal positions 
and in consequence each particle of the uplifted crust will become 
colder by several hundred degrees Centigrade. ‘This causes contrac- 
tion and the surface becomes depressed. The depression may extend 
even below sea level, in which case new material in the form of sedi- 
ments will be deposited in the trough or basin that isformed. ‘There is 
evidence that mountain areas have been elevated and depressed several 
times and the explanation outlined above would seem to show how this 
oscillation can take place. 


MARCH 19, 1931 BOWIE: SHAPING THE EARTH 123 


We have seen from the above analysis what forces are being exerted 
on the materials of the earth. The movement downward of the crust 
under the sediments causes a movement of sub-crustal material back 
toward the region from which the sediments were derived. The 
horizontal movement to restore the balance must occur below and not 
within the crust. What the effect is of this horizontal movement of 
sub-crustal material on the surface configuration of the earth between 
the areas of erosion and sedimentation, we do not know. Some think 
that perhaps much of the wrinkling of the earth’s surface is due to this 
sub-crustal flow. I am inclined to think that the movement of sub- 
crustal material is so small in extent that there can be little effect of 
it on the surface above a crust about sixty miles in thickness. I do 
not think there is anything like a river of material flowing from the 
region below the sedimentary area to the erosion area. It is more 
likely that the moving material involves a large volume, and any portion 
moves only a very short distance. I believe that this movement of 
sub-crustal material, which is a part of the isostatic adjustment, exerts 
only a minor influence on those portions of the surface of the earth 
which lie between the areas of sedimentation and erosion. 

From the above reasoning there appear to be four definite causes of 
changes in the elevation of surface areas aside from the direct effects of 
erosion and sedimentation: First, the depression of the crustal material 
under an area of sedimentation; second, the moving upward of crustal 
material to restore the balance under an area of erosion; third, the 
expansion of crustal material which has been depressed by great loads 
of sediments; fourth, the contraction of the earth’s crust and the 
sinking of the surface under an area of erosion. These must be the 
cause of many of the earthquakes of the world, although it would not 
be safe to assert that these are the only causes of earthquakes and 
surface movements. 

Many geologists do not give as much weight as I do to effects of 
sedimentation and erosion on changes in the configuration of the 
earth’s surface. Prof. C. K. Leith, in his splendid book entitled, 
Structural Geology, published in 1923, tells us that isostasy and the 
maintenance of isostatic equilibrium are minor causes of structural 
changes. He expresses his views as follows: 

‘So far as it is possible to generalize from this vague state of knowl- 
edge, it may be said that geologists are at present inclined to give 
principal place to changing rate of rotation and to the shrinkage of the 
earth, due to heat transfer from the interior outward, whether they go 
back to the nebular or planetesimal hypothesis of the origin of the 


124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 6 


earth; that metamorphism and chemical changes, vuleanism, and 
forces tending to maintain isostatic equilibrium are regarded as sub- 
ordinate or contributory causes, or perhaps as special and local expres- 
sions of the more basic causes first indicated.”’ 

Leith advises the student of the earth to be cautious in any accept- 
ance of a simple and definite explanation as to the causes of structural 
changes near the earth’s surface. He claims that—‘‘The problem 
includes so many unmeasured and perhaps immeasurable factors that 
no living scientist can claim even an approximately correct perspec- 
tive; all are groping for the light.’’ 

I agree with Dr. Leith that the problem involved in untangling the 
geological record is a very complicated one but I do not think it is wise 
to advise a student to avoid a simple explanation of some phenomena 
if other explanations are not available or if the others are so com- 
plicated as to leave one mystified and confused. I believe that the 
only way to attack any scientific problem is to follow a lead, no 
matter how simple, until evidence may show that one is not traveling 
in the right direction. 


CONCLUSION 


Isostasy is now widely recognized as a scientific principle. Its 
advocates hold that there is a maintenance of the isostatic equilibrium 
as materials are moved from one place to another over the earth’s 
surface. These are the physical facts which are related to the processes 
involved in changes in the earth’s surface. They have been proven 
by actual physical measurements. It has been stated that there are 
great horizontal movements in mountain areas, but that isostasy and 
its maintenance call for only vertical movements. My answer to 
this is that I recognize the horizontal movements in mountain areas, 
but believe that these horizontal movements are incidental to the 
vertical movements which are involved in maintaining the isostatic 
balance and which also result from the changes in the temperature of 
crustal matter brought about by the maintenance of equilibrium. 
There is an abundance of space in a mountain area for horizontal 
movements to occur, and it seems to me that it is easier to explain 
these movements as resulting from upward or downward moving 
material than as resulting from a shrinking interior of the earth and a 
collapsing crust. 

Isostasy is a geological problem. It was outlined by the great 
geologist, C. E. Dutton. It has been used by the geodesists merely 
as an effective means by which to harmonize theoretical and observed 


MARCH 19,1931  RATHBUN: NEW CRABS FROM THE GULF OF MEXICO 125 


values of geodetic data. The geodesists hope that isostasy may prove 
of great value to geologists in their efforts to write the geological his- 
tory of the earth. 


ZOOLOGY.—WNew crabs from the Gulf of Mexico... Mary J. RATHBUN, 
United States National Museum. 


During the past year two noteworthy species of crabs were dis- 
covered in the Gulf of Mexico. One, taken in deep water during 
explorations by the Carnegie Laboratory at Tortugas, is a second 
species of Benthochascon, a genus known previously from the Indian 
Ocean; the other was obtained by the Caribbean Biological Labora- 
tories on the coast of Mississippi. 


Family PORTUNIDAE 
Benthochascon schmitti, new species 


Carapace considerably broader than long, anterior portion with an arcuate 
outline, the long postero-lateral margins gradually convergent; surface 
covered with a pavement of flat close set granules; regions fairly well indi- 
cated; hepatic region elevated, mesogastric outlined; deep thumb nail impres- 
sions either side of urogastric region and of posterior cardiac region; on the 
branchial region a sublongitudinal ridge through the middle and a blunt 
sinuous ridge following the curve of the cervical suture. Antero-lateral 
margin armed with three long stout equidistant spines, the first or orbital 
spine directed forward, the others obliquely outward; the third, at the lateral 
angle, the longest and most erect. Four short spines or teeth on front, 
sinuses U-shaped, median narrower than lateral. A small emargination 
and a short groove at middle of supra-orbital margin; a broad sinus and trace 
of a groove just within the outer spine. A long slender spine at inner angle 
of suborbital margin is produced about as far as front; from this spine the 
margin slopes backward to a small notch and groove at base of outer spine. 

Buccal cavity much broader than long, anteriorly widened; merus of third 
maxilliped produced outward, angle arcuate. Cheliped shorter than ambula- 
tories; a spine at inner end of ischium; two spines on merus, one distad of 
middle of upper margin, the other at distal third of lower margin; carpus with 
a long spine at inner angle, a smaller one at outer angle; a spine at distal end 
of upper margin of palm; palm obscurely ridged, two ridges above, two below, 
one through middle of outer and of inner surface. Ambulatory legs rather 
narrow, meri enlarged at middle; merus of swimming leg with parallel sides; 
propodus flattened, elongate, upper margin twice as long as height; dactylus 
narrow-lanceolate. Male abdomen constricted between fifth and sixth 
segments, the latter twice as broad as long, side margins arcuate; terminal 
segment broadly triangular. 

Color.—Carapace ochraceous buff except on hinder half of middle two- 
thirds, which is olive buff strongly tinged with hair brown. Marginal spines 
basally carapace color, next whitish, distal half ochraceous buff, extreme tips 


1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 
Received February 3, 1931. 


126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 6 


lighter. Antennae, antennules, rostral and suborbital spines china white, 
margins of orbit a sort of ochraceous buff, eye stalks ferruginous, corneae 
silvery black around margins. Maxillipeds white. Chelipeds china white 


Plate 1. Benthochascon schmitti, % holotype, carapace 67 mm. wide. Dorsal and 
ventral views. 


except anterior third of sides and distal under edge of merus red and under 
side of coxae white suffused with pinkish vinaceous to peach blossom pink. 
Legs proximally white; running from distal half of merus in hind leg to distal 
fourth in front leg, the legs are bright scarlet vermilion except on inside of 
groove of carpus and propodus of first and second ambulatories which is 


MARCH 19,1931 §RATHBUN: NEW CRABS FROM THE GULF OF MEXICO 127 


Plate 2. Persephona crinita, @ holotype, carapace 21.6 mm. wide, hair removed from 
right half. Dorsal, ventral, and front views. 


Bee 


128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 6 


bluish white; distal half of dactyli of ambulatories shading into wax yellow; 
propodus of last leg bordered above and below on anterior surface and below 
on posterior surface with lilac, the dactylus similarly bordered below on 
proximal half of anterior surface; hairs of hind leg dirty wax yellow. Under 
parts a fainter grayish than dorsum. (W. L. Scumirt.) 

Male, median length 51, total length 53.3, extreme width 67 mm. 

Type-locality.—22.3 miles south of Loggerhead Key, Tortugas, Florida, 
180 fathoms, July 31, 1930, Station 37-30, Waldo L. Schmitt, Carnegie 
Institution. ‘Three males (one is holotype), one female, Cat. No. 63738, 
United States National Museum. 


Family LEUCOSIIDAE 
Persephona crinita, new species 


Male.—Carapace slightly longer than broad, more convex from side to 
side than antero-posteriorly; front little produced; hinder end with three 
similar, short, conical spines, the median one forming an angle not much in 
excess of aright angle. Dorsal surface covered with a dense coating of short, 
hooked hairs which conceals the small and widely separated bead granules; 
the granulation is denser near the lateral and posterior borders and is con- 
tinued on the lower surface of the carapace where it is finer. A granular 
tubercle on the subhepatic protuberance and two on the lateral margin, 
one of which is at the widest point of the carapace and the other antero- 
lateral; no definite marginal line. Front almost transverse, forming a very 
wide V , median sulcus deep. 

Outer maxillipeds sparingly granulate, inner two-thirds of ischium smooth. 
Chelipeds narrow, less than twice as long as carapace, pubescent; merus 
slightly constricted near the carpus, coarsely granulate except for a smooth 
patch on the distal two-fifths, above and below. Carpus and manus finely 
granulate along outer margin; dactylus a little jonger than outer margin of 
manus. Legs pubescent above on merus, carpus and propodus; dactylus 
fringed with hair on either side. Sternum coarsely granulate, interstices 
pubescent. Abdomen very narrow, first three segments granulate. 

Female.—Lateral tubercles less prominent than in male, obsolescent; 
lateral posterior spines further apart, forming a greater angle with median 
spine; posterior margin more produced at middle. 

Male, length 22.3, width 21.6 mm. Female, length 24, width 22.8 mm. 

Type-locality— Horn Island Pass, Mississippi, about 3 fathoms, Aug. 
20, 1930, Caribbean Biological Laboratories Inc. Holotype male, paratype 
female, Cat. No. 63739, United States National Museum. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY 


226TH MEETING 


The 226th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club May 6, 1930. 

Program: H. B. Humeurey: Regeneration in some conifers (illustrated). 
Regeneration from stump sprouts, common in deciduous forest trees, is rare 
among conifers. The redwood, Sequoia sempervirens, is known to reéstablish 


MARCH 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY ; 129 


itself in this way afterafire. Pznus rigida, P. taeda, loblolly pine; P. serotina, 
pond or marsh pine, and P. palustris, long-leaf, yellow or Georgia pine, are 
found to regenerate by means of stump shoots and from buds beneath the 
bark in fire-swept trees. (Author’s abstract.) 

This paper was followed by New Woods for old, a one reel moving picture, 
from the Forest Service. 

E. P. Kiuurp: Across the Andes and on the Amazon for cube and other plants 
(illustrated).—An abstract of this paper, appears in the Proceedings of the 
Biological Society, this JoURNAL 14: 352. 1930. 


227TH MEETING 


The 227th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club October 7, 1930. 

Dr. H. B. Humpurey presented a brief note on the influence of trees and 
associated undergrowth on the rate of stream discharge as observed and 
recorded by him in the vicinity of his home northwest of Washington. 

Program. H.B. Humpurey: The relation of weather to the development of 
stem rust Puccinia graminis (address of the retiring president, illustrated).—Our 
modern knowledge of plant rusts dates from Micux.xi who, in 1730, described 
and illustrated the first genus, Puccznia. PERSOON, in 1795, first recognized 
the rusts as a separate group of fungi. DEBary’s discovery of the phenom- 
enon of heteroecism in 1865 added to our knowledge of the life history of stem 
rust, Puccinia graminis. In 1927, CraiciE discovered the role of the pycnio- 
spores in the life cycle of stem rust and sunflower rust. ‘These steps in the 
life history of the stem rust require certain meteorologic conditions such as 
humidity, temperature, light, atmospheric movement, ete. Concert of all 
these factors is necessary to the development of an epiphytotic of any one of 
the cereal rusts. 

Comparison of stem-rust epiphytotic summers with those characterized by 
little or almost no rust, over a long series of years, has shown that the ultimate 
effect on the host of an optimum of soil moisture and abundant rust is less 
pronounced than it is under conditions of equal rustiness accompanied by 
inadequate soil moisture. One of the effects of the rust attack is a marked 
increase in the water requirement of the afflicted host. An adequate supply 
of soil moisture meets this increased demand and has a tendency to sustain 
the photosynthetic vigor of the host. The optimum temperature for germina- 
tion of teliospores of Puccinia graminis lies between 12° and 20°C.; that of the 
sporidia, between 15° and 20°C. ; that of the aeciospores, between 5° and 18°C.; 
and that of the urediniospores, between 20° and 25°C. It is probable that 
spore showers falling over the spring-wheat and the hard-red-winter-wheat 
States in May sometimes result in early infection. If the temperature at the 
time be suboptimum the growth of the fungus is inhibited. These primary 
infections later become the foci from which urediniospores initiate secondary 
infection and spread of rust. 

Light is one of the most important variables affecting the incidence of stem 
rust. It has been shown that in different varieties of wheat there are impor- 
tant. differences in stomatal response to light and that these differences are in 
some varieties correlated with susceptibility to the organism. This fact is 
especially exemplified in such varieties of wheat as the rust-susceptible Little 
Club and the highly resistant Hope. 

It has been proved that Puccinia graminis overwinters successfully in the 
Gulf States and in California, Oregon, and Washington. Repeated observa- 
tions over many years have established the fact that with the northward 


130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 6 


march of the optimum conditions for rust development there is a correspond- 
ing northward movement of urediniospores. The origin of an epiphytotic in 
the spring-wheat States is not, however, to be found solely in any such south- 
to-north march of inoculum. We must take into the reckoning the common 
barberry of which there yet remain in the North-Central States uncounted 
thousands of bushes. Every spring these bushes discharge into the surround- 
ing atmosphere countless billions of aeciospores which initiate local’outbreaks 
and probably play a considerable part in furnishing initial inoculum for the 
general, far-flung epiphytotics that from time to time befall the spring-wheat 
States. 

The speaker has recorded, during several crop seasons, convincing cirecum- 
stantial evidence to the effect that, in addition to the spore showers precipi- 
tated by south winds which during the growing season occasionally carry 
urediniospores northward, there are spore showers of another kind, precipi- 
tated by rainfall from the clouds of major cyclonic storms that occasionally 
travel in an easterly or northeasterly direction across the North-Central 
States and out to the Atlantic Ocean by way of the St. Lawrence Valley. 
Although it yet remains definitely to be proved that these transcontinental 
cyclonic storms are factors in the distribution of rust spores, the theory of such 
distribution is sound. It may safely be assumed that aeciospores and 
urediniospores, set free from infected barberry bushes and from grains and 
grasses, rise on convection currents to great heights, to be swept later into the 
vortex of the approaching storm only to be precipitated by rain. We know 
that such spores have been collected by exposing spore traps at elevations of 
10,000 feet above the Mississippi Valley. If caught by rain they cannot 
escape precipitation and, under conditions of humidity suitable to their 
prompt germination, can cause infection if light and temperature are favor- 
able. (Author’s abstract.) . 
L. H. Furnt, Recording Secretary. 


Obituary 


Howarp Linco~tn Hopexins, dean and professor of mathematics at 
George Washington University, died on Friday, February 13, 1931, following a 
long illness. He was born in Elgin, Ill., but came to Washington in his 
youth. He graduated from George Washington University, then called 
Columbian University, in 1883 and later received the degrees of bachelor of 
arts, master of arts, doctor of philosophy and doctor of science. From 1882 
to 1892 he served as special computer in the Nautical Almanac Office. He 
had been connected with George Washington University since 1883, holding | 
the positions of professor of mathematics and physics, dean of the department 
of arts and sciences, dean of the college of engineering, and dean of the 
Corcoran Scientific School. He was appointed acting president in 1920 and 
served as president from 1921 to 1923. He was a member of the Washington 
Academy of Sciences, the Philosophical Society of Washington, the American 
Mathematical Society, the Mathematical Association of America, and the 
American Association for the Advancement of Science. 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 21 Apri 4, 1931 No: (7 


GEOLOGY .—Calvert (Miocene) tilting of the Maryland coastal plain. 
A. L. Dryprn, Jr., Bryn Mawr College. (Communicated by 
E. W. BERRY.) ) 


The coastal plain of Maryland may be taken as typical of the 
Atlantic Coastal Plain asawhole. It has few unusual features though 
it does contain a fairly complete section of the coastal plain formations. 
Thus, there are exposed a considerable part of the Lower Cretaceous, 
of the Upper Cretaceous, the Eocene, a part of the Miocene, and the 
series of Pleistocene terraces so common along the Atlantic Coast. 

Several workers have advanced theories to account for the present 
position and attitude of the Pleistocene terraces. McGee, Shattuck, 
and Cooke are those who have probably contributed most. However, 
there has been a dearth of material dealing with the attitude of the 
older sediments of this region. The present contribution is in the 
nature of a general summary, with the addition of some detailed figures 
for the Calvert formation, and a consideration of the bearing of these 
results on the problem of the pre-Calvert deposits and the Pleistocene 
terraces. 

Table I, compiled from reports of the Maryland Geological Survey, 
shows, in a general way, the differences in dip of the formations 
present. 

Several things may be noted concerning Table I: 

1. Those familiar with the formations enumerated know that little 
detailed stratigraphic work has been done on these beds in Maryland. 
The dips and thicknesses given, as well as the unconformities postu- 
lated, are often based on inadequate information. The dips, taken at 
unstated horizons in the formations, can be accepted only as approxi- 
mations until detailed work is done. 


1 Published by permission of the State Geologist of Maryland. Received February 
13, 1931. 


131 


132 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 7 


2. Even after allowance is made for these deficiencies, the data show 
that there is a gradual, progressive decrease of dip (to the southeast) 
passing from older to younger deposits. Such a relation suggests 
continuous tilting during the whole time in question. 

3. The unconformities postulated between successive formations 
or members make it impossible to tell whether tilting was uniform and 
continuous, or whether the present attitudes have been attained by 


TABLE I. 
Formation Dip in feet per mile Thickness in feet 
Talbot 0.4 20 
Unconformity 
Wicomico 0.6 25 
Unconformity 
Sunderland 2to 3 30 
Unconformity 
Lafayette (Brandywine) 5.5 50 
Unconformity 
St. Marys 10 280 (well) 
Unconformity 7 
Choptank 10 (Shattuck) 175 (well) 
3 (at base, present work) —_— 
Unconformity 
Calvert 11 (Shattuck) ; 310 (well) 
16 to 4 (present work) 125 
Unconformity 
Eocene 12,5 200 
Unconformity 
Monmouth 20 to 25 100 
Unconformity 
Matawan P45) 70 
Unconformity | 
Magothy 30 100 
Unconformity 
Raritan 30 to 35 200 
Unconformity 
Patapsco 40 260 
Unconformity 
Arundel 50 125 
Unconformity 
Patuxent 60 350 
Unconformity 
Peneplane on basement rocks 75 ae 


“stable’’ periods of sedimentation, interrupted by uplift and tilting. 
In other words, it is necessary, in order to answer such questions, that 
measurement be made of the change of dip throughout the thickness of 
one conformable series of beds. Detailed work on the Calvert forma- 
tion seems to offer an answer to some of the problems presented. In 
this paper only conclusions will be presented, and proof must be re- 
served for a more comprehensive report. 


APRIL 4, 1931 DRYDEN: CALVERT TILTING 133 


The indurated ledge? just above the Eocene-Calvert contact has a 
dip of about 16 feet per mile (all dips are roughly southeast in direc- 
tion). This ledge lies near the base of the Fairhaven diatomaceous 
earth (lower Calvert), which is 60 feet thick. The top of this dia- 
tomaceous bed dips about 12 feet per mile. There is, thus, a change of 
dip of 4 feet per mile through the 60 feet of thickness. No divisions 
of the Fairhaven have been drawn, so that the distribution in detail 
of this change of dip is not known. 

At the top of the Fairhaven diatomaceous bed there is an uncon- 
formity, undescribed as yet, which probably represents a considerable 
part of Calvert time. Above this unconformity seven well defined 
beds or zones’ can be distinguished—the Plum Point Marls of Shat- 
tuck. On a large cross-section of the Calvert Cliffs these beds are 
seen to have boundaries which are practically straight lines, so that 
their dips can be determined with some confidence. No sign of un- 
conformity is to be seen through the thickness of about 50 feet. 

The dips of these seven beds are given by the following figures. The 
first reading is that near the base of the lowermost bed, and the follow- 
ing seven readings are the dips at the tops of the seven successively 
younger beds. The subjacent figures show the thickness of these 
beds; i.e., each lower figure represents the stratigraphic thickness 
between the pair of dip readings above it. 


Dipemrneet per mile. . 2...) 2... OQ UG Osi 6: 5, 45s 
Stratigraphic thickness between dip | 
Reagiigs, in feet). sash. ose. 4 LALO! Siean O47 aw A 


The total change in dip for this part of the Calvert is 6 feet per mile 
and the thickness 50 feet. 

If we regard only the Plum Point Marls, in which the distribution 
of the change of dip is given by the above figures, a fact of some im- 
portance is apparent: that the rate of change of dip per foot of strati- 
graphic thickness is practically uniform. Tilting of the Maryland 
Coastal Plain during upper Calvert time kept pace with deposition, 
that is, it increased by about an equal angle per unit of time, if we 
regard the homogeneous sediments of the Calvert as having been de- 
posited at a nearly uniform rate. From this relation certain infer- 
ences may be drawn. | 

First, the figures of Table I, together with the facts just enumerated, 
suggest the probability of such continuous tilting during pre-Calvert 
and post-Calvert time. Shattuck’s figures for tilting of Pleistocene 


2 “Zone 2’’ in Md. Geol. Survey, Miocene, p. Ixxiv. 1904. 
3 Not those recognized by Shattuck in Md. Geol. Survey, Miocene. 1904. 


134 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 7 


terraces have been questioned by Cooke,* who believes that the 
measurement of surface elevations of these terraces is inaccurate. 
Nevertheless, it seems probable that such tilting has occurred, and is 
still in progress, although the error of measuring the amount may be 
greater than the quantity itself. 

Second, in seeking a ‘“‘cause’’ for tilting, isostatic adjustment, pre- 
viously invoked as an explanation, seems to be the most likely mecha- 
nism of such uniform, constant tilting, in which the land mass to the 
west is, and has been rising, and the sediments to the east are, and have 
been sinking. Under this assumption the axis of tilting lies near the 
fall-zone,—a postulation borne out by other facts not enumerated here. 

Summary: The homogeneous, comformable beds of the Plum Point 
marls of the Calvert formation show by their regular and progressive 
change of dip that uniform and continuous tilting occurred during the 
deposition of these deposits. A suggestion is made that the same rela- 
tions may be true of the Maryland pre-Calvert strata and Pleistocene 
terraces, and, further, that isostatic adjustment seems the most simple 
explanation for the phenomena presented. 


BOTAN Y.—Botanical notes on, and descriptions of, new and old species 
of Venezuelan plants.—IV. Berberis in Venezuela, new species of 
Oxalis, Exogonium, and others.! H. Prrrrer, Caracas, Venezuela. 


BERBERIS IN VENEZUELA 


Up to the present, four species of Berberis have been reported from 
Venezuela, two of them, B. discolor and B. truxillensis, described by 
Turezaninow,? and two more, B. Moritz and B. vitellina, published 
by Hieronymus.? On the other hand, we find again among our ma- 
terials a fair representation of an equal number of species, three of 
which have tentatively been identified as B. discolor, B. truxillensis 
and B. vitellina, while the fourth seems to be new. Unfortunately | 
however, the descriptions of the four original species are very incom- 
plete and vague, and it is difficult to ascribe new specimens to any of 
them, without having the types at disposal for comparison. We find 
great variation in the leaves on the same bush, some of them being for 
instance spinulose on the margin and the others not, some pruinose 
and strongly glaucous beneath and others simply discolored, ete. 


4C. Wythe Cooke, This JourNat, 20: 390. 1930. 

1 Received February 9, 1931. The three first contributions on new and old species 
of Venezuelan plants appeared in this JouRNAL, 19: 175-186, 351-357. 1929; and 20: 
3-12. 1930. 

2 Bull. Soc. Nat. Moscow, 272: 285, 287. 1854. 

3 Engler, Bot. Jahrb., 20: Beibl., 49: 15-16. 1895. 


APRIL 4, 1931 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 135 


The only comparative leaf character that seems constant and that 
can be used to distinguish our Venezuelan species is size. The posi- 
tion of the leaf articulation, said by Hieronymus to be at the apex of 
the petiole in B. Moritzi1, while it is placed between that and the basal 
sheath in the other species, would seem also to be a good distinctive 
character, the only one indeed, to separate B. Moritz from B. vitellina, 
though the apical position assigned to it in the first species seems to me 
very doubtful. 

Nor do the flowers furnish us with good means of distinguishing the 
several species; the segments of the perianth vary greatly in number 
in the same raceme, their size and shape are quite uniform, the new 
type being the only one with the flowers sensibly larger. ‘The stamens 
vary also in number, but in the ovary we discovered an unexpected 
difference in that there are constantly 2 ovules in three of the four 
species studied, while in our new species the number varies from 4 to 
7. Both this detail and the unusually large size of the bracts as com- 
pared with those of the other Venezuelan species, have seemed suffici- 
ent to justify the description of this type under a new name, which, 
however, may possibly be found to be synonymous with that of some 
extra-Venezuelan species. 

Our five species of Berberis, may be distinguished by means of the 
following key: 


Ovules 4 to 7 in each ovary; bracts up to 7 mm. long....1. B. prolifica 
Ovules 2 in each ovary 
Inflorescence pubescent; leaves smooth and shiny on the upper face, glau- 
cescent beneath with very revolute margin...... 2. B. discolor 
Inflorescence glabrous; leaves more distinctly reticulate 
Bracts minutely pubescent and ciliate; leaves small (up to 5 em. long), 
slaucous beneath... 2022. 2305 oe bs ee ees 3. B. truxillensis 
Bracts glabrous; leaves up to 8 em. long and hardly pruinose underneath 
Leaf articulation at the petiole apex, i.e. between the petiole and the 


Ips ee ee ey Srey Oak hii oir tl Saad] «o,., Coeseh la eaten ceed 4. B. Moritzii 
Leaf articulation at the petiole base, i.e. between the leaf sheath and 
EOE ETIOLE auc jas cue chad he 0s ts ig att oh eae tea WAM pe Doom eat 5. B. vitellina 


1. Berberis prolifica Pittier, sp. nov. 


Arbusculus ramis crassis teretibus, cortice subrimoso tectis; spinis 3-fidis 
basi breviter vaginatis, vagina amplia; foliis ad nodos floriferos 3—5-fascicula- 
tis, glabris, coriaceis, basi breviter vaginatis, petiolo canaliculato supra vagina 
articulato; laminis ovatis oblongisve, basi cuneato-attenuatis, apice obtusis, 
supra saturate viridis subtus glaucescentibus, in aetate tantum pallidiori- 
bus, costa prominente, venis primariis 7-8 prominulis, demum minute reticu- 
latis; marginibus in juveniis spinuloso-denticulatis cito denudatis; racemis 
simplicibus, plus minusve nutantibus, rhachi pedicellisque glabris; bracteis 
ovato-lanceolatis, apice longe apiculatis; sepalis 5, late ovatis plus minusve 


136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 21, No. 7 


acuminatis, interdum glaucescentibus; petalis 3, late ovatis, obtusis; nec- 
tariis 6, late ovatis, basi in ungue angusto attenuatis, apice obtusis; stamini- 
bus 6; ovario ovoideo, 4-7-ovulato, glabro; bacca breviter ovoidea vel sub- 
globosa, extus pruinosa, 1-3 sperma. 

Arbuscula 1-2 m. altus. Vagina spinarum circa 2 mm. longa; spina 
media 6-10 mm., laterales 5-8 mm. longae. Vagina foliorum circa 5 mm. 
longa; petiolus 2-4 mm. longus; laminae 24.5 em. longae, 1-2 cm. latae. 
Racemi 3-10 cm. longi; pedicelli 8-9 mm. longi. Bracteae 5-7 mm. longae. 
Sepala 4-6 mm. longa, 2-4 mm. lata. Petala 8 mm. longa, 6-6.5 mm. lata. 
Nectaria 7.5 mm. longa, 5.7 mm. lata. Bacca 6-7 mm. longa, 5 mm. diam. 

Meér1pA: Quebrada de Saisay, 3880 m., flowers and fruits April 7, 1930 
(Gehriger 41, type); Cafiada de Chachopito, 3600 m., fruits January 22, 1922 
(Pittier 13258); both localities near San Rafael de Mucuchies. 


As stated above, this shrub differs from the other Venezuelan species in 
the size and shape of the leaves, the relatively long bracts, the larger flowers 
and the number of the ovules. 


2. BERBERIS DISCOLOR Turcz. Bull. Soc. Nat. Moscou 272: 287. 1854. 


Méripa: Sierra Nevada de Mérida, 3000 m. (Funck & Schlim 1124, 
type); paramos de Santo Domingo y Chachopo, 3200 m.; flowers Sept. 14, 
1922 (Jahn 1120). 

The specimens collected by Dr. Jahn bear a single 3-fid spine, whereas 
the description says spinis . . . . palmatim 5-9-partitis; besides, the leaves 
are not sessile, but for the rest the plant agrees fairly well with Turczaninow’s 
description. In the flowers, we found 5 sepals, 3 or 4 petals and 6 or 7 nec- 
taries. 


3. BERBERIS TRUXILLENSIS Turez. Bull. Soc. Nat. Moseou 272: 285. 
1854. 


TrusJILLo: “In provincia Truxillo Venezuelae”’, 2500 m. (Funck & Schlim 
754, type). Méripa: pdramo del Morro, 2500 m. (Jahn 1062). 


This species distinguishes itself mainly by its smaller leaves, which are 
often quite glaucous beneath; the nectaries also are larger than the petals. 


4. Berperis Moritrziu Hieron. Engler Bot. Jahrb. 20: Beibl. 49: 16. 
1895. 


Mégripa: Alpine belt of the mountains above the city of Mérida; flowers 
in February (Moritz 1309, type). 


Not found again and possibly identical with the following species. 


5. BERBERIS VITELLINA Hieron. Engler Bot. Jahrb. 20: Beibl. 49: 
15. 1895. 


Aracua: Near El Pesjual de la Lagunita, on the road from Caracas to 
Colonia Tovar; flowers July (Moritz 795, type); Colonia Tovar, flowers 
December 1924 (Allart 473). Mrranpa: Upper belt of Naiguata, forming 
isolated bushes; flowers May 24, 1913 (Putter 6269); La Ciénega, Silla de 
Caracas, 2280 m.; flowers December 26-29, 1918 (Puttier 8303; Rohl 5). 


APRIL 4, 1931 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 137 


New SPECIES OF OXALIS 


Oxalis avilensis Pittier, sp. nov. 


Fruticosa, caulibus erectis, ramis ramulisque virgatis, nodulosis, plus 
minusve puberulis pubescentibusve; stipulis inconspicuis, rotundatis, dense 
rufo-villosis; foliis parvis apice ramulorum plerumque congestis, petiolo brevi 
villoso, foliolis approximatis suborbicularibus ovatisve basi obtusis apice 
rotundatis leviter emarginatisve, supra in sicco nigrescentibus adpresse piloso- 
pubescentibus, subtus albo-punctulatis densiuscule cano-pubescentibus; 
pedunculis strictis canohirsutis foliis subaequantibus longioribusve; floribus 
paucis (1-4) breve pedicellatis, pedicellis hirsutis basi bracteolatis; bracteis 
stipulis simillimis, bracteolis minimis ovato-acutis, hirsutis; sepalis ovatis 
ovato-oblongisve, obtusis, duobus exterioribus dense villosis, demum parce 
villosis, ciliatis; petalis flavis, cuneatis, basi anguste unguiculatis, apice ro- 
tundatis leviter emarginatisve; staminibus utrinque glabris; ovario ovato- 
oblongo, glabro, stylis hirtellis, stigmate glabro, bilobulato. 

Planta 25-35 cm. alta. Stipulae vix 1 mm. longae. Petioli 1.2-1.8 cm. 
longi; foliola sessilia 0.7-1.2 em. longa, 4-10 mm. lata, lateralia minora. 
Pedunculi 1.5-2.5 cm. longi, pedicelli plus minusve 3 mm. longi. Sepala 
5.5-6.5 mm. longa, 1.1—-2.1 mm. lata. Petala 8-8.7 mm. longa, apicem versus 
5 mm. lata. 

FEDERAL District: Cerros del Avila, above Caracas; flowers September 
1927 (Hermanos Cristianos 161, type). 


Oxalis meridensis Pittier, sp. nov. 


Herbacea, minuscula, caulibus tenuibus, repentibus, pilosulis; estipulis 
scariosis late obovatis, apice rotundatis, plus minusve pilosulis, longe ciliatis; 
foliis sparsis, petiolo filiformi pilosulo, foliolis parvis, cordatis, profunde 
emarginatis, lobulis rotundatis, supra minutissime puberulis, subtus plus 
minusve pilosulis, marginibus parce ciliatis; pedunculis unifloribus, villosis, 
apice bibracteolatis; bracteis lanceolatis, glabris, margine ciliatis; bracteolis 
linearibus, acutis, pilosiusculis; pedicello apicem pedunculi articulato, pubes- 
cente; sepalis oblongo-lanceolatis, obtusiusculis, plus minusve pilosulis ciliatis- 
que; petalis flavis, oblongo-cuneatis, basi tenuiter unguiculatis, apice sinuatis 
emarginulatisque; staminibus utrinque glabris; ovario oblongo-ovoideo, 
stylisque glabris; stigmatibus bilobulatis; capsulis pubescentibus, loculis 
4—5-spermis. 

Caules 5-7 cm. longi. Stipulae 2-2.5 mm. longae. Petioli 2-3.5 cm. 
longi; foliola plus minusve 6 mm. longa, circa 9 mm. lata. Pedunculi 1-3 
mm. longi; bracteae usque ad 4 mm. longae; bracteolae plus minusve 2 mm. 
longae; pedicelli 4-5 mm. longi. Sepala 7-7.5 mm. longa, 1.2—1.8 mm. lata. 
Petala 9-9.5 mm. longa, 2-2.5 mm. lata. 

Merripa: Cafiada de Chachopito, 3400 m.; flowers and fruits January 
22, 1929 ( Pittier 13343). 


This may not be more than an altitudinal variety of O. corniculata, from 
which, however, it differs in the indumentation of the stems and leaves, in 
the uniflorous peduncles, the larger flowers, the glabrous styles and in the 
lesser number of seeds. The description does not agree with that of any of 
the varieties mentioned by Zuccarini. 


138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 7 


Oxalis glandulosa (Knuth) Pittier, n. comb. 
Oxalis pubescens var. glandulosa Knuth, Pflanzenr. 954: 108. 1930. 


Herbacea, caulibus gracilibus rufo-pilosulis, erectis; stipulis conspicuis, 
persistentibus, scariosis, late ovatis, pilosulis; foliis parvis, petiolo tenui, 
rufo-villoso, foliolis cordiformibus rotundatis utrinque parce pilosulis, supra 
solute viridibus subtus pallidioribus costa dense villosa; pedunculis longissi- 
mis bracteatis pedicellis calycibusque rufo-villosis dense piloso-glandulosis; 
floribus 2-4, pedicellatis, subeymosis; bracteis ovato-lanceolatis, scariosis, 
villosis; bracteolis filiformibus, villosis, caducissimis; sepalis violaceis ob- 
longo-lanceolatis, apice obtusiusculis; petalis flavis cuneatis, apice subtrun- 
catis, basi in unguiculo angusto attenuato; staminibus utrinque glabris; 
ovario stylisque glabris, stigmatibus bilobulatis; capsula glabra, loculis 3-4- 
spermis. 
ose 8-10 cm. longi. Stipulae 4-5.5 mm. longae. Petioli 1-2.5 cm. 
longi; foliola 6-9 mm. longa, 4-9 mm. lata. Pedunculi 4-5 cm., pedicelli 
3-5 mm. longi. Bracteae plus minusve 5 mm. longae; bracteolis 1-2 mm. 
Sepala 6.5 mm. longa, 1.8 mm. lata. Petala 8 mm. longa, 2-3 mm. lata. 
Capsula 6-6.5 mm. longa, 4.5 mm. diametro. 

Méripa: Near the city of Mérida, 1844 (Moritz 1249, type of Knuth’s 
variety); Venta de Chachopo, 2800 m.; flowers and fruits January 16, 1929 
(Pittier 13169, specific type). 


This plant differs from Oxalis pubescens H. B. K. in the habit, the texture 
of the stems, the size and shape of the leaves, the length of the peduncles, 
the cymose and not umbellate inflorescence, the glands on the upper part of 
the latter, and also in the general dimensions as well as in the details of the 
flower. 


Oxalis Jahnii Pittier, sp. nov. 


Arbuscula, caulibus crassis, lignosis, ramulis nodulosis apicem versus 
pubescentibus; stipulis parvis, rotundatis, villosis; foliis sparsis, petiolo 
brevi, pubescente, foliolis ovato-oblongis obovatisve, basi subcuneatis apice 
rotundatis leviter emarginatisve, supra punctulatis villosisque, subtus dense 
villosis, terminali majori petiolulato; pedunculis subtrifloris, in axillis soli- 
tariis, foliis parum longioribus, pubescentibus; bracteis inconspicuis; bracteo- 
lis parvis, lineari-lanceolatis, villosis; floribus magnis; sepalis oblongo-lanceo- 
latis, acutis, exterioribus violaceis, villosis; petalis flavis, cuneatis, anguste 
unguiculatis; staminibus glabris; ovario oblongo-fusiformi, glabro; stylis 
apiculatis; stigmatibus minutissime capitellatis. 

Arbuscula 20-30 cm. alta. Petioli 1.5-2 cm. longi; petioluli 3-4 mm.; 
laminae laterales 1 cm. longae, 0.5-0.6 cm. latae; petiolulus terminalis 0.3- 
0.4 cm., lamina 1.5-2 em. longa, 0.5-1 cm. lata. Pedunculi plus minusve 
2.5 cm., pedicelli 4 mm. longi. Sepala 12 mm. longa, 3-4 mm. lata; petala 
20-22 mm. longa. Ovarium 4 mm. longum. 

Meripa: Péramo de La Trampa, 1800 m.; flowers March 13, 1922 (Dr. 
A. Jahn 1002, type). 


Determined first as O. pentantha, it was found to differ from this species in 
that the longer stamen filaments lack the toothlike appendage. It is more 
closely allied to O. Plumieri, from which it is distinguished by the habit, 


APRIL 4, 1931 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 139 


the indument and the glabrous stamens, and also by the fact that it is a high 
mountain type. 


Oxalis nodulosa Pittier, sp. nov. 


Frutex vel arbuscula, caulibus lignosis, ramulis virgatis, flexuosis, nodulo- 
sis, apice adpresse pubescentibus; estipulis minutis, hirsutis; foliis parvis, ad 
apicem ramulorum congestis, petiolis brevibus dense hirsutis, foliolis ovatis 
ovato-oblongisve, basi rotundatis apice obtusis retusisve, supra dense ad- 
presso-pubescentibus in sicco nigrescentibus, subtus rufo-villosissimis; pe- 
dunculis foliis aequantibus vel superantibus, plerumque 3-floris, pedicellisque 
hirsutis; bracteis parvis, bracteolisque minimis linearibus villosis; sepalis 
lanceolatis vel ovato-lanceolatis, apice acutis obtusisve, extus villosis; petalis 
cuneatis, anguste unguiculatis, apice subflabellatis; filamentis minoribus gla- 
bris, majoribus dentatis, hirtellis; ovario stylisque glabris, stigmatibus bilo- 
bulatis; capsulis subglobosis, glabris, loculis monospermis. 

Caules usque ad 50 cm. longi. Petioli plus minusve 1 cm. longi; foliola 
0.3-1 cm. longa, 0.2-0.6 cm. lata, lateralia minores; petiolulos terminalis 2-3 
mm. longus. Pedunculi 1-2 cm., pedicelli 2-3 mm. longi. Sepala 6-7 mm. 
longa, 1-2 mm. lata. Petala 14 mm. longa. 

FEDERAL DistRicT: Quebradita de Las Ruinas, near Caracas, on the mar- 
gin of the savanna; flowers and fruits April 10, 1921 (Pittier 9443, type). 


This species is distinguished by its bushy habit and its naked nodose rami- 
fication, the ultimate branchlets ending with a bunch of short leaves and axil- 
lary inflorescences. Provisionally we place Saer no. 296, of Cerro Gordo 
near Barquisimeto, Lara, with this species, with which it agrees tolerably 
well as to details, though it differs a little in habit. More materials are 
required. 


KEY TO THE VENEZUELAN SPECIES OF OXALIS 


Acaules, bulbosae; folia trifoliolata; pedunculi multiflori; flores umbellati; 
sepala apice glandulosa; petala rosea vel violacea 
Bulbi simplices; foliola sessilia, utrinque punctulata subtus pallidiora, 
parce pilosula; umbellae 10-15-florae; stamina minora parce, majora 
EMSS INOS Amterehs << chao. vies. a4 jas ae a ee 1. O. latifolia H. B. K. 
Bulbi compositi 
Foliola subtus puberula; pedunculi bifidi, ramus 3-floris 
2. O. debilis H. B. K. 
Foliola ciliata, supra puberula, subtus pubescentia; flores apicem pe- 
duncalo umbellatis no01 8 fies eA eee 3. O. grandifolia DC. 
Caulescentes; radices fibrosae vel fusiformae; folia trifoliata; pedunculi 
simplices vel bifidi; flores solitarii, umbellati, spicati vel corymbosi 
Foliola in apice petioli omnes sessilia vel subpetiolulata; petioli filiformibus 
Stipulae nullae; caules erecti, lignosi; foliola sessilia vel subpetiolulata, 
ovato-rhombea, parce adpresso-pubescentia, costa subtus hirsuta; 
filamentasmajora hispida. . 2. 2.2. .a0. 0% 4. O. rhombifolia Jacq. 
Stipulae apice vel omnium liberae; plantae plus minusve pubescentes, 
lignosae vel herbaceae; stamina omnia glabra; petala flava 
Caules lignosi, erecti; foliola rotundata vel ovata, subtus adpresse 
GCATIO =LOMMENGOSA 0) 50 54: sansse oe sac oe eee oe 5. O. avilensis Pittier 


140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 7 


Caules herbacei 
Caules plus minusve decumbentes vel reptantes, ramulosi 
Pedunculi plerumque biflori; foliola parce adpresse pubescentia ; 


Styli -hirtelli 20.5158. 4 enemies eaoieg 6. O. corniculata L. 
Pedunculi plerumque uniflori; foliola subtus punctulata et to- 
mentosar sty hoolabrinw ie eae ae 7. O. meridensis Pittier - 


Caules erecti vel suberecti 
Pedunculi, pedicelli et calyx glanduliferi; foliola suborbiculares 
8. O. glandulosa (Knuth) 
Pedunculi, pedicelli et calyx eglandulosi, glabri vel pubescentes; 
foliola plerumque ovalia vel oblonga 
9. O. pubescens H. B. K. 
Foliola lateralia a terminali remota 
Filamenta majora staminum edentula 
Sepala ovato-oblonga, duo exteriora breviter penicillata; filamenta 
majora apicem versus puberula........... 10. O. Plumieri J acq. 
Sepala oblongo-lanceolata, exteriora villosa; filamenta utrinque glabra 
11. O. Jahnii Pittier 
Filamenta majora staminum denticulata 
Filamenta utrinque glabra vel apice puberula. .12. O. pentantha Jacq. 
Filamenta majora plus minusve puberula vel hirtella 
Flores albi, plus minusve flavescentes vel purpurascentes 
Ovarii loculi monospermi; sepala lanceolata, acuta, puberula; 
petala alba, parva............ 13. O. borjensis H. B. K. 
Ovarii loculi 3-4-spermi; sepala ovato-lanceolata, obtusa vel 
subacuta, puberula vel glabrescentia; petala parva, 9.5 mm. 
Key ay 2 emia ey een ML Dea K id rah SM LN 14. O. Barrelieri Jacq. 
Flores flavi 
Planta herbacea, annua; filamenta majora barbata 
15. O. distans St.-Hil. 
Plantae fruticosae, perennae; ovarium glabrum 
Petala 9 mm. longa; foliola utrinque adpresse-pubescentes 
16. O. sepium St.-Hil. 
Petala 14.5-15 mm. longa; foliola utrinque villoso-tomentosa 
17. O. nodulosa Pittier 


Monnina pusescens H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 5: 418. pl. 505. 1821. 


This species, the type of which was collected near Caracas, varies con- 
siderably in habit according to the station. In dry places, it assumes the 
proportions of a real, ramose shrub, with slender branches and rather small, 
oblong leaves, while in shadowy groves the stems are almost simple, thick and 
subfistulose, with large, ovate, very broad leaves (up to 17 cm. long and 10 cm. 
broad in our specimens). But for the identity of the long acuminate bracts 
and other parts of the flowers, one may be easily induced to distinguish both 
forms as separate species. The plant is, with M. phytolaccaefolia of the same 
authors, the most common of the genus throughout the upper temperate 
belt of Venezuela. 


Grammadenia hexamera Pittier, sp. nov. (Subg. EUGRAMMADENIA) 


Arbuscula ramis ramulisque brunneis glaberrimis gracilibus, foliis parvis, 
sessilibus, coriaceis, ellipticis, glaberrimis, basi plus minusve cuneatis apice 


APRIL 4, 1931 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 141 


subacutis longiuscule mucronulatis, marginibus revolutis, supra opacis, 
laevibus, nervio medio angustissime impresso, subtus leviter pallidioribus 
parce lineatis punctatisque; inflorescentiis axillaribus, glabris vel minutissime 
puberulis, foliis multo brevioribus; floribus parvis hexameris, flavovirentibus, 
pedicellatis, bracteola parva, ovata vel triangulari-acuta, scariosa suffultis; 
sepalis ovatis, inaequalibus, parce lineatis ultra 1/3 connatis; petalis immacu- 
latis, ovalibus, apice late rotundatis, basi infra 1/3 connatis; staminum fila- 
mentis coalitis tubo brevissimo efformantibus, antheris subsessilibus, brevi- 
bus, basi emarginatis, apice obtusis; ovario subgloboso, depresso, estilo 
brevi. 

Arbuscula 3-4 m. alta. Folia 4.5-6 em. longa, 1-2 em. lata. Racemi 1.5- 
2 cm. longi; pedicelli 1.5-2 mm. Bracteolae pedicelli subaequantes. Flores 
2.7 mm. longi. Calyx 2.54 mm. diam.  Petala circa 3 mm. longa, 1.8-2.2 
mm. lata. Tubusstamineus 1 mm. longus; antherae 0.7 mm. longae lataeque. 

MerIDA: Vicinity of Tabay, 2500-3200 m.; flowers September 18, 1930 
(Gehriger 471, type). 


This species should be placed near G. alpina Mez, from which it differs in 
size, in the leaves being smaller and thinner and in the flowers being all 
hexamerous. It grows in forests or on semi-wooded slopes, while the former 
is a plant forming thick bushes in the high paramos. 


Dipladenia bella Pittier, sp. nov. 


Fruticosa, scandens, glaberrima, ramis ramulisque flexuosis, cortice 
griseo minute verruculoso tectis; foliis submembranaceis, discoloribus, petiolo 
brevi canaliculato, laminis obovatis ovatisve basi (in sicco plicata) subacutis, 
apice late rotundatis abrupte laeviterque acuminatulis, marginibus leviter 
revolutis; costa subtus prominente, venis primariis circa 12, tenuibus; racemis 
subterminalibus 1-3-floris, brevissime pedunculatis foliis subaequantibus: 
bracteis desunt; pedicellis elongatis, erectis pedunculo multo longioribus; 
calycis segmentis ovato-lanceolatis, acuminatis, parte angustam tubi corollae 
multo brevioribus, intus basi utroque latere glandula parva 2-3-loba muni- 
tis; corolla nivea, tubo usque ad 1/2 longitudinis anguste cylindrico, dein 
sensim ampliato, lobulis magnis, late ovatis; staminum filamentis brevibus, 
hirsutis, antheris lineari-lanceolatis; disci glandulis 2, compressis, oblongis, 
apice truncato-crenulatis, ovariis glabris apice acutatis; stylo elongato, 
tenui; stigma conico, basi sub-5-lobo, apice bifido; folliculi desunt. 

Petioli 1-1.2 em. longi; laminae 6.5-9 em. longae, 3.5-4.5 cm. latae (acu- 
minulum plus minusve 6 mm. longum). Pedunculi 0.8-1.5 cm., pedicelli 
2-2.7 cm. longi. Calyx circa 5 mm. longus; segmenta 4.5 mm. longa, 2.5 
mm. lata. Corolla tota 6-6.5 cm. longa; tubus 3.6-3.9 em. longus, pars an- 
gusta 1.1-1.4 em. longa; lobi 3.2-3.6 em. longi, 3.6-3.8 em. lati. Antherae 
8.5-9.5 mm. longae. Stylus circa 16 mm. longus; stigma 2.5 mm. altus. 

FEDERAL District: Forests of Loma de En Medio, 1000 m., valley of 
Puerto La Cruz, in sunny, cool gullies; flowers September 4, 1918 (Putter 
8108, type). ARagua: Valley of Ocumare de la Costa, on humid rocks; 
flowers October 12, 1927 ( Pittier 12556; Réhl, without date or number). 


Dr. Markgraf, of the Berlin Botanical Museum, identified this plant with 
Dipladenia Riedelii Miill.-Arg. But, besides the dissimilarity of habitat, 
our specimens show several important discrepancies in shape of leaf, in shape 
and dimensions of the corolla, remarkable for its large lobes, and in the longer 
pedicels. Probably other differences are present in the stamens and pistil, 
the description of which was not given by Miiller-Arg. 


142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 7 


ON THREE SUPPOSEDLY NEW SPECIES OF EXOGONIUM 


This genus, considered by some as a simple section of Ipomoea, differs from 
it mainly in having the stamens and style long-exserted and the corolla with 
a narrow tube and a more or less short, almost rotate limb. In 1897, Peter* 
attributed to the group about 15 species, but in 1925 this number was in- 
creased to 25 by N. L. Britton. Of these, I have seen the descriptions of 
only about 12 species, only one of which seems to correspond to the materials 
of the four Venezuelan species collected up to the present. Our No. 8034 
agrees fairly well with H. repandum Choisy, differing only in the size of the 
sepals; these, however, are accrescent, and their larger dimensions can be 
explained by the advanced condition of the only flower at disposal. The 
other species I have tentatively named and described, so that the four can 
be keyed as follows: 


Leaves small, scarce, 3-lobed; stems thin, verrucose....1. E. verruculosum 
Leaves large, entire; stems thick, smooth 
Stems, petioles and peduncles retro-pilose; leafblades and sepals hairy 
2. E. retropilosum 
Stems, leaves, peduncles and sepals glabrous 
Inflorescence umbellate, the peduncles shorter than the petioles 
3. E. mirandinum 
Inflorescence racemose, the peduncles usually longer than the petioles 
4. E. repandum 


Exogonium verruculosum Pittier, sp. nov. 


Volubile, caulibus elongatis, teretibus vel infra nodos leviter sulcatis, 
glabris, crebre verruculosis; foliis paucis, parvis, petiolo tenui, canaliculato, 
glabro, laminis petiolo longioribus, basi cordatis vel late emarginatis, pro- 
funde 3-lobis, minutissime pubescentibus, lobis subintegris subrepandis, 
lanceolatis, acutis, exterioribus inaequilateralibus; inflorescentiis 2—4-floris, 
e nodos defoliatos nascentibus, pedunculo brevi, parce verruculoso suffultis; 
pedicellis glabris infra medium articulatis; sepalis ovalibus, glabris, imbrica- 
tis; corolla glabra, carnea, tubo elongato apicem versus sensim ampliato, 
limbo angusto; staminibus exsertis, basi breviter hirtis; antheris elongatis, 
basi cordiformibus, disco ovarioque glabris; stylo glabro, tenue, stigmate 
capitato, 2-lobulato; et caetera ignota. 

Caules longissimi. Petioli 7-10 mm. longi; laminae circa 2.5 em. longae, 
3 em. latae, lobulo medio 2 em. longo, 0.7—-0.8 cm. lato. Pedunculi 1.5-2 
em., pedicelli 1-2 cm. longi. Sepala circa 1cm.longa. Corollae tubus 4.5 em. 
longus; limbus circa 4 cm. diam. Staminum filamenta circa 3.7 cm. longa; 
antherae plus minusve 4.5 mm. longae. Stylus 4.9-5 cm. longus. 

Aracua: Hacienda de Chuao, on the slopes of the dry belt, trailing and 
climbing; flowers March 14, 1926 (Pzttier 12118, type). 


E. verruculosum is closely related to E. arenarium Choisy, of which it 
differs mainly in its verruculose stems, the pubescent leaves and a much larger 
calyx. 


4 Pflanzenfamilien IV!, 3a: 27. 1897. 
5 Scientific Survey of Porto Rico, 6: 109. 1925. 


APRIL 4, 1931 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 143 


Exogonium retropilosum Pittier, sp. nov. 


Volubile, sublignosum, caulibus vestutis crassis parce retro-pilosis, pilis 
canescentibus; foliis magnis, membranaceis, petiolo anguste canaliculato, 
parce retro-piloso, pilis mollibus, laminis cordiformibus, petiolo longioribus, 
basi plerumque anguste emarginatis, apice acute-acuminatis, marginibus 
subintegris, supra parce adpresse-pilosis, subtus pallidioribus dense adpresse- 
pilosis; pedunculis axillaribus, petiolis brevioribus, retro-pilosis, apice 2-3 
dichotomis, vulgo 4-floris; pedicellis adpresse pilosis, inaequantes; sepalis 
late ovatis, acute acuminatis, accrescentibus, exterioribus basin versus dense 
pilosis; corolla saturate rosea, tubo recto, limbo subplano, marginious revolu- 
tis; staminibus inaequalibus, longe exsertis, filamentis basi molliter cano-hir- 
sutis, antheris oblongis, basi emarginatis, apice obtusis; ovario glabro; stylo 
glabro; stigmate capitato, bilobulato et caetera ignota. 

Petioli 10-11 cm. longi; lamina foliorum 16 cm. longa, 13-15 cm. lata. 
Pedunculi 6-9 cm. longi, pedicelli 14 cm. longi. Sepala 0.8 cm. longa. 
Corollae tubus 44.5 cm. longus; limbus circa 4 cm. diam. Filamenta 4-5 
em. longa; antherae 5mm. longae. Stylus 5-5.5 em. longus. 

Méripa: Vicinity of Timotes, 2000 m., in bushes; flowers January 23, 
1928 ( Pitiver 12698, type). 


This species is characterized mainly by its pubescence, which seems to be 
lacking in the other species of the group. 


Exogonium mirandinum Pittier, sp. nov. 


Volubile et reptans, caulibus angulosis, subsulcatis, glabris; foliis magnis 
integris, longe petiolatis, glaberrimis, petiolo anguste canaliculato, laminis 
ovato-cordatis, basi late emarginatis, apice subabrupte acuminatis mucrona- 
tisque, supra obscure viridis, subtus paullo pallidioribus; pedunculis axil- 
laribus, umbellatim 3-5-floris, petiolis brevioribus, glabris; pedicellis tenues, 
pedunculis multo brevioribus; sepalis ovalibus, glabris, exterioribus quam 
interioribus paullo longioribus; corolla rosea glabra, tubo medium ventricoso, 
limbo concavo marginibus revolutis; staminibus longe exsertis, infra faucem 
corollae insertis, filamentorum tertio inferiori villoso, antheris liberis basi 
anguste emarginatis; disco crasso, margine sinuato, ovario glabro obpyri- 
formi, stylo elongato, glabro stigmate bilobulato, lobulis angustis, divaricatis; 
et caetera ignota. 

Caules elongati, robusti. Petioli 9.5-10 cm. longi; laminae 12-14 em. lon- 
gae, circa 10 cm. latae. Pedunculi 6-8 cm., pedicelli 1.5-2.2 cm. longi. 
Sepala 1.5-2 em. longa. Corollae tubus plus minusve 4 cm. longus; limbo 
circa 3 cm. diam. Filamenta 38-40 mm. longa; antherae 3.7 mm. longae. 
Stylus 4.6-4.8 cm. longus. 

MrranpA: Near Arenaza, on road from Petare to Santa Lucia, on rocky, 
semi-shaded slopes; flowers September 26, 1926 (Pzttzer 12217, type). 


The following notes were taken on the spot: “Flowers pink; corolla limb 
reflected; stamens pinkish white, exserted about 1 cm.; stigma bilobulate.”’ 
This species belongs near E. repandum Choisy, but differs in the peduncles 
being shorter than the leaves, in the umbellate arrangement of the pedicels, 
and in the larger calyx. 


144 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 7 


BOTANY.—The Genus Mendoncia in Peru.t E. C. Leonarp, U. 8. 
National Museum. (Communicated by E. P. Kine). 

Much valuable material has been added to the rapidly growing 
collections of South American plants in the U. 8. National Herbarium 
by recent expeditions to Peru, especially those conducted by E. P. 
Killip and A. C. Smith under the auspices of the Smithsonian IJnstitu- 
tion, by J. F. Macbride and Llewelyn Williams under the Marshall 
Field, Jr., Fund, and by the explorations of Guillermo Klug of Iquitos, 
Peru. In this material are represented a large number of species 
of Acanthaceae, a complex and difficult group in which the writer has 
been interested for some time. ‘The present paper treats of the species 
of Mendoncia indigenous to Peru, six of which are considered new 
to science. 

The genus, named for Cardinal Mendonga, Patriarch of Lisbon, con- 
sists of twining herbaceous (sometimes suffrutescent) climbers bearing 
cylindric red or white axillary flowers, each subtended by a pair of 
conspicuous bracts. The corolla is 5-lobed; the stamens, four in 
number, are attached at the throat of the corolla in pairs, one pair 
just above the other; the anthers are relatively large, and usually have 
diverging bearded lobes; the calyx is a mere ring a few millimeters 
long, except for M. klugiz, in which five well developed lobes are pres- 
ent; the fruit, drupaceous, is usually dry and compressed at the tip. 

A complete historical account of this interesting genus is given by 
W. B. Turrill in his excellent monograph.’ 


Key TO THE PERUVIAN SPECIES 


Calyx deeply lobed; pubescence of bracts dark brown....1. M. klugii. 
Calyx annular or very shallowly lobed; pubescence, if sufficiently dense, 
drying yellowish or golden brown. , 

Stem manifestly pubescent, the internodes sometimes becoming glabrous 
with age. 
Hairs of the stem closely appressed. ) 
Indument of bracts velvety-pubescent with closely appressed hairs. 
IBFACLSIOV ate.) city Ge Mie aa ates. ae eee 2. M. smithii. 
Bracts oblong-lanceolate. 
Leaves thin, sparingly pubescent beneath; bracts usually less 
Ubi lems Wace. Sais ge mee ame mere 3. M. schomburgkiana. 
Leaves firm, densely pubescent beneath; bracts usually more 
than: Acma; wide a5 3. See ete aoa a ee, eee 4. M. aspera. 
Indument of bracts tomentose or puberulent, the hairs spreading or 
ascending. 
Bracts oblong-lanceolate; hairs of the pedicels 2 to 3 mm. long. 
5. M. aurea. 
Bracts ovate; hairs of the pedicels 0.5 mm. long. .6. M. peruviana. 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re- 
ceived March 2, 1931. 
2 A revision of the genus Mendoncia, Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1919: 407-425. 1919. 


APRIL 4, 1931 LEONARD: THE GENUS MENDONCIA 145 


Hairs of the stem spreading. 
Brreic ove: Mowers white: >.< .c2<) Sif: caged cae 7. M. hirsuta. 
Bracts oblong; flowers red or pink. 
Apex of bracts acuminate, tipped by a mucro 2 to 3 mm. long 
8. M. lindavii. 
Apex of bracts rounded, tipped by a mucro 0.5 to 1 mm. long 
9. M. killipii. 
Stem glabrous or inconspicuously pubescent near the nodes with short- 
appressed hairs. 
Bracts oblong; corolla about 6 em. long.......... 10. M. pedunculata. 
Bracts ovate; corolla 3.5 em. long or less. 
Stem quadrangular, the angles narrowly winged. 


racist sto) When done. ea.» tates So ae lee o 11. M. glabra. 

Petes 2) 10) cb CWI ION ose | abo emia erg ihe =a 12. M. tarapotana. 
Stem terete or subterete. 

Bracts elliptic to obovate......... en ice Fis a 13. M. tessmannii. 

PACs OVALS... Se epate eas strays wp Rife @ 4% 14. M.  sprucei. 


1. Mendoncia klugii Leonard, sp. nov. 


Stem terete, densely tomentose with yellowish-brown hairs; petioles 1 to 
1.5 em. long, densely tomentose; leaf blades ovate to elliptic, 6 to 11 cm. long, 
4 to 7 em. wide, abruptly acuminate at apex and tipped by a mucro 1 to 2 
mm. long, rounded or obtuse at base, both surfaces densely pilose with erect 
curved hairs 1.5 mm. long; flowers axillary, 2 to 4 in each axil; pedicels slender, 
1 to 1.5 em. long, densely pilose with spreading brown hairs up to 2 mm. long; 
bracts thin, veiny, oblong-ovate, up to 2 em. long and 1.5 cm. wide, obtuse 
at apex and tipped by a mucro 1 mm. long, rounded at base, densely pilose 
with spreading dark-brown hairs up to 2 mm. long, glabrous within; calyx 5 
mm. long, pilose with brownish hairs, deeply lobed, the lobes linear-lanceolate, 
4 mm. long, 1 mm. wide at base, acuminate; corolla 3 em. long, glabrous, 
“yellowish white” (Klug), the tube 2 mm. wide, the throat 5 mm. wide, the 
lobes orbicular, 4 mm. in diameter; filaments 1 mm. long; anthers sagittate, 
12 to 13 mm. long, acute at apex and tipped by a filiform appendage 0.5 mm. 
long, the lobes bearing a longitudinal band of papillae, slightly unequal and 
puberulent at the base; ovary lepidote; style about 2 cm. long, glabrous; 
stigma disk-shaped, slightly 2-lobed; fruit not seen. 

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,456,166, collected in forest 
near Iquitos, Mishuyacu, Department of Loreto, Peru, altitude 100 meters, 
March 26, 1930, by G. Klug (no. 1115). Klug’s no. 581, collected in the 
same locality, is also of this species. 


This is unique in its well developed calyx lobes. It is further marked by 
the dense covering of curved brown hairs, more or less spreading on the leaves, 
pedicels, and bracts, but matted on the stem. 


2. Mendoncia smithii Leonard, sp. nov. 


Herbaceous vine; stem terete or subquadrate, appressed-pilose; petioles 
3 to 10 mm. long, appressed-pilose; leaf blades ovate to oblong-ovate, up to 
7 cm. long and 4.5 em. wide, acuminate or acute at apex, the tip itself rounded 
and terminating in a mucro 1 to 2 mm. long, rounded or acute at base, the 
upper surface somewhat scabrous and puberulent with minute ascending 


146 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 7 


hairs, each arising from a raised stellate base, the midrib and nerves clothed 
with longer appressed hairs, the lower surface velvety-pubescent with closely 
appressed hairs; flowers axillary, one or two in each axil; pedicels 2 to 4 em. 
long, velvety-pubescent with closely appressed hairs; bracts ovate, 25 to 
28 mm. long, 14 to 15 mm. wide, obtuse at apex and tipped by a small mucro, 
rounded at base, softly pubescent with closely appressed hairs of a bright 
yellowish-brown color (when dry), the midvein prominent; calyx annular, 
glabrous; corolla rich pink or red, glabrous, 2.5 em. long, 5 mm. wide near 
base, 9 mm. wide at middle of tube, narrowed to 7 mm. at throat, the lobes 
2.5 mm. in diameter, shallowly emarginate; filaments 2 mm. long, glabrous; 
anthers sagittate, 9 mm. long, flat and acute at apex, the basal lobes unequal; 
ovary glabrous; style about 2 cm. long, glabrous, persistent; stigma 2-lobed; 
fruit glabrous, 17 mm. long, 7 mm. wide, 5 mm. thick, flattened and oblique 
at apex, dull purple when ripe. 

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,460,767, collected in woods at 
Iquitos, Department of Loreto, Peru, altitude about 100 meters, August 3, 
1929, by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (no. 26953). 

Additional specimens examined: 

Dept. Loreto: Forests of Mishuyacu, near Iquitos, alt. 100 meters, Klug 2. 
Vicinity of Iquitos, alt. 120 meters, Williams 3643. 


This species is characterized by glabrous fruit, velvety bright yellowish 
bracts, and a relatively broad corolla. It is probably nearest M. coccinea 
Vell., of eastern South America. 


3. Mendoncia schomburgkiana Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 50. 1847. 


Stem quadrangular, appressed-hirsute; petioles 1 to 3 cm. long, appressed- 
strigose; leaf blades elliptic, 5 to 11.5 em. long, 3 to 7.5 em. wide, abruptly 
acuminate at apex and terminated by an awn 2 to 4 mm. long, acute to ob- 
tuse at base and slightly decurrent on petioles, scabrous-hirsutulous above, 
the hairs arising from stellate bases, the lower surface sparingly strigose but 
not scabrous, the midrib and nerves appressed-hirsute on both surfaces, 
prominent beneath; flowers 1 or 2 in each axil; pedicels slender, 4 to 7 cm. 
long, appressed-strigose; bracts linear-oblong, subfalcate, 3 cm. long, about 
8 mm. wide, abruptly acute or acuminate at apex, rounded or slightly nar- 
rowed at base, rather densely pubescent with appressed or ascending, curved, 
tawny hairs about 0.5 mm. long; corolla bright red, 4 cm. long, 3 mm. wide 
at base, gradually enlarged to 5 mm. at throat, the lobes 5 mm. long, 3 mm. 
wide, emarginate; ovary finely puberulent; style about 3 cm. long, finely 
puberulent below, glabrous above; fruit obliquely obovate, slightly com- 
pressed, about 15 mm. long, 8 mm. in diameter, narrowed at base, acute at 
apex, and tipped by a portion of the persistent style, sparingly puberulent. 

Type collected on banks of the Pomeroon River, British Guiana, by Schom- 
burgk (no. 1431). 

Rance: British Guiana; Venezuela; Peru; Brazil. 

Specimen examined: 

Dept. Cuzco: Coshipata, Weberbauer 6946. 


A species marked by thin veiny subglabrous leaves, slender pedicels, and 
narrow subfalcate bracts. 


APRIL 4, 1931 LEONARD: THE GENUS MENDONCIA 147 


4. Mendoncia aspera (Ruiz & Pav.) Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 51. 1847. 
Mendozia aspera Ruiz & Pav. Syst. Veg. Peruv. Chil. 158. 1798. 


Stem appressed-pubescent; petioles 1 to 3 cm. long, appressed-pubescent; 
leaf blades broadly elliptic, 5 to 12 em. long, 3 to 6.5 em. wide, acuminate at 
apex, usually tipped by a mucro 1 to 4 mm. long, rounded or narrowed at base, 
the upper surface pubescent with appressed hairs (about 0.5 mm. long), 
each arising from astellate base, the lower surface rather densely and softly 

pubescent with appressed yellowish-brown hairs about 1 mm. long; flowers 
1 to 3 in each axil; pedicels 2 to 6 ecm. long, appressed-pubescent; bracts 
oblong-ovate or lanceolate, 3 to 3.5 em. long, 1.2 to 1.5 cm. wide, often sub- 
faleate, acute at apex and ‘tipped by a short mucro, rounded at base, densely 
sericeous-hirsute with closely appressed yellowish-brown hairs; corolla bright 
red, 3.5 em. long, the throat 8 mm. wide; ovary puberulent; style glabrous; 
fruit deep purple, 1.5 mm. long, 10 mm. in diameter, compressed, sparingly 
puberulent. 

Type collected in Peru by Ruiz and Pavon. 

RanGE: Surinam; Venezuela; Peru. 

Specimens examined: 

Dept. Loreto: Iquitos, alt. 100 meters, Killip & Smith 27309. Yuri- 
maguas, lower Rio Huallaga, alt. 135 meters, Killip & Smith 27946, 27954; 
Williams 7842. Santa Ana, upper Rio Nanay, Williams 1236. 

Dept. JuNiN: In dense forest, Puerto Bermudez, alt. 375 meters, Kullip 
& Smith 26412. 


The distinguishing characters of this species are its large oblong-ovate silky 
bracts and the rather dense pubescence of yellowish-brown appressed hairs. 


5. Mendoncia aurea Leonard, sp. nov. 


Stem terete, faintly striate, densely pubescent with appressed golden- 
brown hairs, or becoming glabrous below; petioles 1 to 2 em. long; leaf blades 
ovate to elliptic or obovate, 9 to 13 em. long, 5 to 8 em. wide, abruptly acu- 
minate or obtuse at apex and tipped by a short mucro, the upper surface 
pubescent, the hairs 0.5 mm. long, arising from stellate bases, the nerves 
and midrib appressed-pilose, the lower surface rather densely pubescent with 
golden-brown hairs, these thickest on the nerves and midrib; flowers axillary, 
1 to 3 in each axil; pedicels 3 to 4 cm. long, stout, densely tomentose with 
golden-brown hairs; bracts lanceolate, slightly faleate, 3.5 to 4 em. long, 1.2 
to 1.7 em. wide, acuminate at apex, rounded at base, densely tomentose with 
golden-brown hairs without, glabrous within; calyx annular, 1.5 mm. long; 
corolla dark red, glabrous, 4.3 cm. long, 7 mm. wide at base, narrowed to 
4mm. above base, then enlarged to 8 mm. at throat, the lobes erect, obovate, 
5 mm. long, 4mm. wide, rounded and shallowly emarginate; filaments 2 mm. 
long, glabrous; anthers sagittate, 13 to 15 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm. wide (the 
upper slightly smaller than the lower), the basal lobes unequal, bearded, the 
tip acuminate; ovary 2 cm. long, puberulent; style 3.5 cm. long, glabrous; 
stigma 2-parted, the lobes disk-shaped ; fruit oblong, compressed, flattened 
and acute at apex, puberulent. 

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,455,671, collected at Mishu- 
yacu, near Iquitos, Department of Loreto, Peru, altitude 100 meters, Decem- 
ber 16, 1929, by G. Klug (no. 673). 


148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 7 


Additional specimens examined: 
Dept. Loreto: Dense forest, Mishuyacu, near Iquitos, alt. 100 meters, 
Killip & Smith 29994. La Victoria, Amazon River, Williams 3089. 


Near M. aspera, but differing in the thick tomentose pubescence of the 
bracts and pedicels. 


6. Mendoncia peruviana Leonard, sp. nov. 


Herbaceous vine; stem terete or subquadrangular, appressed-pilose, the 
hairs 0.5 to 0.75 mm. long; petioles 1 to 3 cm. long, appressed-pilose; leaf 
blades ovate, up to 10 cm. long, 5 cm. wide, acuminate at apex, obtuse to 
acute at base and decurrent on the petioles, thin, the upper surface pubescent, 
the hairs arising from stellate bases, the lower surface rather sparingly pubes- 
cent with appressed hairs 0.5 mm. long; flowers 1 to 2 in each axil; pedicels 
2 to 2.5 cm. long, pilosulous, the hairs appressed or spreading; bracts ovate or 
elliptic, 2 to 2.5 em. long, 1 to 1.5 cm. wide, rounded at apex, tipped by a short 
mucro, veiny, densely pubescent with fine minute hairs intermixed with 
larger stiffer ones, these 0.5 mm. long to 1 mm. long on the margins; calyx an- 
nular; corolla cream-white, 3 to 4 cm. long, 6 mm. wide at base, narrowed to 
4 mm. about 1 cm. above base, and then enlarged to 8 mm. at throat, the 
lobes obovate, about 7 mm. long, 5 to 6 mm. wide, emarginate; filaments 3 
mm. long, glabrous; anthers sagittate, about 10 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, the 
basal lobes unequal, bearded, acute at tip; ovary densely pilosulous; style 
2.5 em. long, pilosulous below, glabrous above; stigma 2-parted, disk-shaped; 
fruit not seen. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,460,309, collected in thickets 
along river at Puerto Yessup, Department of Junin, Peru, altitude 400 meters. 
July 11, 1929, by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (no. 26357). 


This species has the facies of M. puberula of northern and eastern South 
America, but differs in the closely appressed pubescence of the stems and the 
strongly sculptured marking at the bases of the hairs on the upper leaf 
surfaces. 


7. Mendoncia hirsuta (Poepp. & Endl.) Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 52. 1847. 


Mendozia hirsuta Poepp. & Endl. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 3: 10. 1845. 
Mendoncia perrottetiana Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 53. 1847. 
Mendoncia angustifolia Poepp.; Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 52. 1847. 


Stem sparingly hirsute with spreading hairs 1 to 3 mm. long; petioles 1 to 
3.5 em. long, hirsute; leaf blades elliptic, 6 to 14 em. long, 3 to 7 cm. wide, 
tapering or abruptly narrowed to a slender acuminate tip, narrowed at base, 
membranous, rather sparsely hirsute on both surfaces; pedicels 2 to 3 cm. 
long, hirsute with tawny spreading hairs; bracts oblong-elliptic, rounded at 
base, rounded or obtuse at apex, apiculate, thin, veiny, hirsute with spreading 
hairs 2 to 4 mm. long; corolla white; fruit 15 to 17 mm. long, 9 to 10 mm. in 
diameter, compressed, the tip flat, oblique, obtuse, or rounded, glabrous. 

Type collected near Yurimaguas, Peru, by Poeppig. 

Rance: French Guiana; Colombia; Surinam; Peru; Bolivia. 

Specimens examined: 

Dept. Loreto: Lower Rio Huallaga, Williams 4675. Yurimaguas, 
lower Rio Huallaga, Williams 7871. Lower Rio Nanay, Williams 550. 


APRIL 4, 1931 LEONARD: THE GENUS MENDONCIA 149 


This is readily recognized by the thin veiny leaves, the long spreading pu- 
bescence, and the large, thin, oblong bracts. 


8. Mendoncia lindavii Rusby, Mem. Torrey Club 4: 241. 1895. 


Stem angled or grooved, ferruginous-pilose with spreading hairs; petioles 
0.5 to 1.5 em. long, pilose; leaf blades ovate to broadly oval, 5 to 10 cm. long, 
2 to 5.5 em. wide, acuminate and awn-tipped at apex, rounded at base, mem- 
branous, the upper surface scabrid, sparsely pilosulous, the lower surface 
rather densely and somewhat velvety ferruginous-pilose; flowers 1 or 2 in each 
axil; pedicels stout, densely ferruginous-pilose; bracts oblong to oblong-lan- 
ceolate, 3 to 4 cm. long, 1 cm. wide, acuminate at apex and tipped by an awn 
2 to 3 mm. long, subfalcate, densely ferruginous-pilose; corolla red, 4 to 5 
em. long, 6 to 7 mm. wide at throat, the lobes 4 to 5 mm. long, entire; ovary 
densely pilose; style about 4 cm. long; fruit oblong-obovate, strongly com- 
pressed, keeled, 2 cm. long, 1 cm. in diameter, oblique, tipped by a portion of 
the persistent style, densely brown-puberulent. 

Type collected at Yungas, Bolivia, by M. Bang (no. 532). 

RANGE: Guatemala; Costa Rica; Panama; Colombia; Peru; Bolivia. 

Specamens examined: 

Dept. Loreto: Pinto-cocha, Rio Nanay, Williams 791. Pebas, Amazon 
River, Williams 1785. 


A species easily recognized by its dense indument of spreading ferruginous 
hairs. It is apparently of wide distribution. 


9. Mendoncia killipii Leonard, sp. nov. 


Herbaceous vine, sometimes woody at base; stem terete, sulcate, rather 
densely pilose with spreading or retrorse yellowish hairs 1 to 2 mm. long; 
petioles 0.5 to 1.5 em. long, densely pilose with spreading hairs; leaf blades 
oblong-ovate to elliptic, up to 10 cm. long and 5.5 cm. wide, acuminate at 
apex and tipped by a short mucro, rounded or obtuse at base, rather firm, 
the upper surface bearing numerous hairs, each arising from a stellate base, 
the lower surface velvety pubescent with ascending hairs about 1 mm. long, 
these denser and more spreading on the midrib and nerves; flowers one or 
two in each axil; pedicels 2 to 3 em. long, densely pilose with spreading yel- 
lowish hairs about 2 mm. long; bracts oblong-ovate, 2 to 2.8 em. long, 1 to 1.3 
cm. wide, obtuse or rounded at apex, tipped by a minute mucro 0.5 to 1 mm. 
long, rounded at base; calyx annular, pilose, the lobes low; corolla deep red, 
glabrous, cylindric, 3 cm. long, 5 mm. wide at base, slightly narrowed above 
and then enlarged to 7 mm. at throat, the lobes orbicular, 5 mm. in diameter; 
filaments 2 to 3 mm. long, glabrous; anthers sagittate, 8 to 12 mm. long, 
acuminate at apex, the basal lobes unequal, sparingly puberulent; ovary 
densely pilose with straight hairs; style 2 em. long, sparingly pilosulous; 
stigma 2-parted, the lobes disk-shaped; fruit (mature?) obovoid, 2 em. long, 
1 em. broad, 0.6 em. thick, flattened and slightly oblique at apex, tipped by a 
portion of the persistent style. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,358,982, collected at edge of 
woods on the Schunke Hacienda, above San Ramén, Department of Junin, 
Peru, altitude 1,400 to 1,700 meters, June 8, 1929, by E. P. Killip and A. C. 
fos (no. 24622). Collected at same locality by C. Schunke (nos. 1436, 
1443). 


150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 7 


Additional specimens examined: 

Dept. Loreto: Woods, Yurimaguas, lower Rio Huallaga, alt. 135 meters, 
Killip & Smith :28060. 

Dept. Junin: Dense forests, Pichis Trail, Yapas, alt. 1,350-1,600 meters, 
Killip & Smith 25460. 


Near M. coccinea, but easily distinguished from that species by its spread- 
ing pubescence. 


10. Mendoncia pedunculata Leonard, sp. nov. 


Stem terete, sulcate, the tips sparingly puberulent with appressed hairs 
above, glabrous below, the nodes slightly swollen; petioles 2 to 3 em. long, 
glabrous; leaf blades elliptic, 10 to 16 cm. long, 6 to 10 cm. wide, abruptly 
acuminate at apex and tipped by a mucro 1 to 2 mm. long, obtuse at base and 
decurrent on petiole, both surfaces glabrous; flowers 1 to 4 on axillary pe- 
duncles 1.5 to 2.5 em. long, the pedicels 5 to 7 mm. long, both pedicels and 
peduncles covered with minute appesssed hairs; bracts oblong, 4 em. long, 
1.4 to 1.8 cm. wide, rounded at apex and tipped by a short mucro, rounded 
at base, inconspicuously pubescent with minute appressed hairs without, 
glabrous within; corolla white, marked with reddish brown within, glabrous, 
5 to 6 em. long, the tube curved, 2.5 cm. long, 4 mm. wide at base, narrowed 
to 3 mm. near throat, 1 cm. wide at throat, the limb 3 cm. wide, the lobes oval, 
1 to 1.5 em. long, 8 to 10 mm. wide; upper pair of stamens about 8 mm. above 
the lower; filaments 5 to 7 mm. long, glabrous; anthers sagittate, 12 to 15mm. 
long, 2 mm. wide, the basal lobes unequal and minutely bearded, acuminate 
at tip; ovary sparingly puberulent; style about 5 cm. long, glabrous, the 
lobes about 5 mm. long; fruit not seen. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,455,658, collected in forest, 
Mishuyacu, near Iquitos, Department of Loreto, Peru, altitude 100 meters, 
December 13, 1929, by G. Klug (no. 659). Klug’s no. 682, collected in the 
same region, belongs to this species. 


This differs from other Peruvian members of the genus in its large glabrous 
leaves, large oblong bracts, showy corolla, and peduncled flowers. 


11. Mendoncia glabra (Poepp. & Endl.) Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 52. 1847. 
Mendozia glabra Poepp. & Endl. Novy. Gen. & Sp. 3: 10. 18485. 


Plant essentially glabrous throughout; stem subquadrangular; leaf blades 
elliptic-ovate, 5 to 8 cm. long, 2.5 to 4 em. wide, acuminate at apex, rounded 
or acute at base; bracts ovate, 1.6 em. long, 1.4 cm. wide; pedicels about 2.5 
em. long; corolla narrow, tubular; filaments 1 mm. long; anthers 7 mm. long. 

Type collected at Tocache Mission by Poeppig; also collected in Peru by 
Ruiz and Pavon. 

No Peruvian material has been seen by the writer. 


12. Mendoncia tarapotana Lindau, Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 4: 313. 1904. 


Plant glabrous throughout; stem quadrangular, the angles narrowly 
winged; petioles 2 to 3 em. long; leaf blades elliptic or elliptic-ovate, up to 
12.5 em. long and 6.5 cm. wide, acuminate at apex, rounded at base, subcoria- 
ceous; flowers single or paired in the axils of the leaves; pedicels about 2 cm. 
long; bracts oblong, 2.5 em. long, 1 em. wide, rounded at both ends, the apex 


APRIL 4, 1931 LEONARD: THE GENUS MENDONCIA 151 


tipped by a short mucro; corolla white, 3.5 em. long; style 4 cm. long; fruit 
oblong, 1.5 to 2 cm. long, 1 cm. in diameter, deep purple. 

Type collected at Tarapoto, Department of Loreto, Peru, by R. Spruce 
(no. 4620). 

Rance: Peru. 

Specimens examined: 

Dept. Loreto: San Antonio, Rio Itaya, alt. 110 meters, Killip & Smith 
29473. Pebas, Amazon River, Williams 1769. 


The larger bracts, rounded at the apex, distinguish this from its near 
relative M. glabra. 


13. Mendoncia tessmannii Mildbr. Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin 9: 982. 
1926 


Stem sparingly pilose with appressed or ascending hairs; petioles 2 to 3 
cm. long, sparsely pilose or glabrous; leaf blades elliptic or ovate, 5 to 11 cm. 
long, 6 to 6.5 cm. wide, acuminate and apiculate at apex, rounded or obtuse at 
base, glabrous or bearing a few short appressed hairs; peduncles quadrangular, 
3 to 4 em. long, sparsely and minutely pilose; bracts oblong-elliptic to slightly 
obovate, 15 to 17 mm. long, 10 to 11 mm. wide, rounded and apiculate at tip, 
rounded at base, minutely and sparingly pilose; corolla white, 2.5 em. long, the 
throat 7 mm. wide, the lobes about 1 cm. long and 0.8 em. wide, shallowly 
emarginate; ovary glabrous; style about 17 mm. long; fruit obovate, slightly 
flattened, 15 mm. long, 9 to 10 mm. in diameter, glabrous. 

Type collected at Boca de Yarina, Department of Loreto, Peru, by Tess- 
mann (no. 3505). Photograph of type collection in U. 8S. National Her- 
barium. 

RancGE: Colombia; Venezuela; Peru. 

Specimen examined: 

Dept. Loreto: Wooded banks of lower Rio Huallaga, alt. 130 meters, 
Killip & Smith 29252. 


Distinguished by its subglabrous leaves and firm obovate bracts. 


14. Mendoncia sprucei Lindau, Bull. Herb. Boiss. 5: 647. 1897. 


Stem subterete, striate, sparingly appressed-hirsute; petioles 1 cm. long; 
leaf blades elliptic, 5 to 9 em. long, 2.5 to 4.5 cm. wide, obtuse or rounded at 
base, acuminate and apiculate at apex, both surfaces sparingly pubescent 
with scattered appressed hairs about 0.5 mm. long; flowers solitary in the axils; 
peduncles slender, 3 to 6 em. long, sparingly pubescent with short appressed 
or ascending hairs; bracts ovate, about 20 mm. long, 10 to 12 mm. wide, 
rounded at base, rounded or acute at apex, sparingly covered with appressed 
hairs 0.5 mm. long; flowers not seen; fruit purplish black, glabrous, 17 to 20 
mm. long, 10 to 11 mm. in diameter, somewhat flattened and oblique at apex, 
subterete below. 

Type collected near Sao Gabriel de Cachoeira, on the Rio Negro, Brazil, 
by R. Spruce (no. 2332). | 

Rance: Venezuela; Peru; Brazil. 

Specimens examined: 

Dept. Loreto: Lower Rio Huallaga, alt. 155 to 210 meters, Wzlliams 
4390. 

Dept. JunIN: Dense forest, Pichis Trail, Yapas, alt. 1,350-1,600 meters, 
Killip & Smith 25455. 


152 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 7 


The fruits of Walliams 4390 are replaced by peculiar conical growths 4 
to 5 cm. long, about 4 mm. in diameter at base and gradually narrowed to 2 
mm. at tip. ‘This growth may possibly have been caused by the sting of some 
gall-producing insect. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


The Anthropological Society of Washington at its annual meeting held 
on January 20, 1931, elected the following officers for the ensuing year: 
President: Joan M. Cooper, Catholic University of America; Vice-President: 
Matruew W. STIRLING, Bureau of American Ethnology; Secretary: FRANK 
H. H. Roperts, Jr., Bureau of American Ethnology; Treasurer: Hunry 
B. Couns, Jr., U.S. National Museum; Members of the Board of Managers: 
Dante Foikmar, JoHN P. Harrineton, J. N. B. Hewitt, H. W. Kriecer, 
GEORGE S. DuNcAN. 

The Secretary submitted the following report for the year. 


Membership: 

Tbidie META ERS: iinet one fe atin alot, cd ae agen RES 
ACULVEeAMeMbERS 35 80 ow eee a ts a er oT 
Associate members. «sce iye cate ues oo ee i eee 9 
Honorary mem bers. cae gua. oad. dc ae ge ee ee 27 
Correspondine mem bers, eics cee wa co de ho ee 22 

Potala eye Het aM Uk ka ahi ee 120 
Deceased during year.....2: .. ARR OL Ce a ee See 5 
esveme Oye anar ys Le eee oe Lei 3 
New active members 072 22100 6 eee a ee 2 
New associate members... 0. 0000 68 2 ee 3 


During the year the Society sponsored a special series of evening lectures. 
The subjects dealt with the evolution and cultural history of mankind. The 
topics and speakers were: 

January 7, 1930. The Coming of Man, by Dr. Fay-Coorrer Cougs, Profes- 
sor of Anthropology at the University of Chicago. 

January 21, 1930. The Differentiation of Man Into Races and His Spread 
Over the Earth, by Dr. ALES Hrpui¢éKa, Curator, Division of Physical An- 
thropology, U. 8. National Museum. 

February 4, 1930. The Culture Area, by Dr. CLARK WISSLER, Curator of 
Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History; Professor of An- 
thropology at Yale University. 

February 18, 1930. The Civilizations of Middle America, by Dr. HERBERT 
J. SPINDEN, Curator Department of Ethnology, Brooklyn Institute of Arts 
and Sciences. 

March 4, 1930. Prehistoric Pueblos and Cliff Dwellings of the Southwest, 
by Mr. Num M. Jupp, Curator of American Archeology, U. 8S. National 
Museum. 

Papers presented before regular meetings of the Society were as follows: 

March 18, 1930. Some New Facts on the Creek Social Organization, by Dr. 
JoHN R. Swanton, Ethnologist, Bureau of American Ethnology. 

April 15, 1930. First Contacts of White Men, Indians and Negroes on 
Espanola, by Dr. C. L. G. ANDERSON, retiring president of the Society. 


APRIL 4, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 153 


October 21, 1980. Current Anthropological Work in the United States, 
by Mr. M. W. Stiruine, Chief of Bureau of American Ethnology. 

November 18, 1930. Some Cheyenne and Arapaho Notes, by Dr. TRUMAN 
MicHeEtson, Ethnologist, Bureau of American Ethnology. 

December 16, 1930. Pottery Making in the Province of Cocle, Panama, 
by Mr. Henry B. Rozserts, Carnegie Institution of Washington and Peabody 
Museum at Cambridge, Mass. 

December 19, 1980. Scotch Sword Dances and Other European War Dances, 
by Prof. Frantisek Pospisiu, Director of the Section of Ethnography of 
the Regional Museum of Moravia. This was a special meeting of the Society. 

All of the meetings, with the exception of the five special lectures and that 
given by Prof. Pospisit, were held in Room 42-43 of the New National 
Museum. The other meetings were held in the auditorium of that building. 

The Society was unfortunate in the loss by death of five of its members. 
Dr. J. WALTER FEWKES, a past president, died on May 31, 1930. Mr. 
Henry W. HensHaw, also a past president, died August 1, 1930. Dr. 
Lovis Macxkatu died July 27, 1980. Mr. JAmus M. Sprar died October 24, 
1930. Mr. F. M. Tryon died in December 1930. 


Frank H. H. Rosperts Jr., Secretary. 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY 
228TH MEETING 


The 228th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 4, 1930. 
Program: Reports on the Botanical Congress at London: 
E. A. AucutEr: The horticultural program. 
C. L. SHear: The fungus foray—The British Mycological 
Society, which consists of several hundred members, held its autumn Fungus 
Foray for 1930 at Whitby, England. Some sixty persons were present includ- 
ing members and guests. The party spent the week in collecting in various 
wooded areas in the vicinity. An abundance of material was found, especially 
of Agarics and other fleshy fungi. Collections made during the day were 
named and spread out on tables for exhibition each afternoon and evening. 
All the members present, many of whom were amateurs, showed a remarkable 
familiarity with the genera and species collected, and all participated in the 
work with much enthusiasm. Such gatherings of mycologists for field work 
are of the greatest importance in stimulating an interest in the subject and in 
accumulating a knowledge of the occurrence and distribution of the fungi in 
any region, and the example of our British colleagues might be followed with 
great advantage in this country. (Author’s abstract.) 

A. 8. Hircucock: The sessions on nomenclature.—In preparation for the 
sessions a “blue book,” giving changes proposed from the International 
Rules, together with the articles to be changed, was sent out to members of the 
Interim Committee on Nomenclature for their vote. Upon the returns was 
based a “‘yellow book,”’ which contained the amendments considered by the 
Congress. The proposal to omit the rule requiring a Latin diagnosis of new 
genera, species, or other groups, was lost, though names published with 
descriptions in other languages up to 1932 were declared valid. Later homo- 
nyms are not tenable except as conserved in the list of Nomina Conservanda. 
The type concept, governing the application of names, is incorporated in the 
Rules. A permanent International Committee on Nomenclature was ap- 
pointed with power to act on proposals referred to it, such as additions to the 
list of conserved genera, interpretation of the rules and the typification of 
genera. 


154 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 7 


N. E. Stevens: Social Aspects of the congress. 

D. B. JoHNSTONE-WALLACE: Competition as a factor in the success of grass 
and clover mixtures.—In mixtures of forage plants for hay or pasture it is not 
enough to consider the value of each constituent growing in pure culture but 
the behavior of these plants when subjected to competition must be taken 
into account. Italian rye-grass alone will outyield perennial rye-grass but 
when seeded in mixture with red clover the total yield is greatest where 
perennial rye-grass is used. ‘The reason is that the ranker growth of the 
Italian rye-grass suppresses the red clover while the latter is able to make a 
good growth when competing with perennial rye-grass. Italian rye-grass is of 
great value in pasture mixtures where its strong early growth affords herbage 
which is not allowed to shade out the slower growing plants because it is 
constantly grazed down. The best practice in England today, therefore, is 
to so select the constituents of a mixture as to provide early, medium and late 
species or varieties which will succeed one another and will accommodate 
themselves to the existing competition. For this purpose some of the wild 
varieties of forage plants are better suited than the cultivated varieties. 
This is especially true of the wild white clover. It is more persistent than the 
cultivated white Dutch clover and has a beneficial effect on the accompanying 
grasses. (Abstract by A. J. PIETERS.) 


SPECIAL MEETING 


A special meeting of the Botanical Society. was held at the Cosmos Club 
November 19, 1930. Dr. J. G. Dickson presented motion pictures illustrat- 
ing his travels in Russia, especially in the region of the Caucasus and in the 
mountains of Armenia, where he found the wild wheat, Triticum dicoccordes, 
first discovered by AARONSON on Mount Hermon. 


229TH MEETING 


The 229th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club December 2, 1930. 

Program: Thomas H. Kearney: Cotton from a botanist’s point of view.—At- 
tention was called to the obscurity surrounding the origin of cultivated cot- 
tons and the difficulty of making a satisfactory classification of them. Lantern 
slides illustrated the structure of the cotton plant in general and of the flower 
in relation to fertilization, the taxonomy and geographical distribution of the 
wild and cultivated species of Gossypium, the behavior of interspecies and 
intraspecies hybrids and the inheritance of particular characters. (Author’s 
abstract.) 


L. H. Furnt, Recording Secretary. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


On his way to join the “China unit” of the trans-Asiatic expedition, the 
Rev. Father TrErLHarRD DE CHARDIN, paleontologist, visited Dr. GILBERT 
GROSVENOR, president of the National Geographic Society, which is co- 
operating with the French explorers. 

The trans-Asiatic expedition is one of the most comprehensive geographical 
explorations of our times, and it will employ all the aids of modern science 
and a diverse personnel of specialists in its study of the little-known tribes, 
geology, zoology, plant life and other aspects of secluded inner Asia. 


A. Wetmore has been elected an Honorary Member of the Orthnitho- 
logische Gesellschaft in Bayern. 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 21 Apri 19, 1931 No. 8 


BOTAN Y—New grasses from China Y. L. Kmne,? U. 8. National 
Herbarium. (Communicated by A. 8. HrrcHcocx.) 


During the course of my studies in preparation of a monograph on 
the grasses of China, I have found two undescribed species in the 
Andropogoneae, and one new Arundinella. So little work has hitherto 
been done on the Chinese grasses that it is probable that as my study 
progresses further unknown species will be brought to light. I take 
pleasure in expressing my appreciation of the assistance given me by 
Prof. A. S. Hitchcock, Mrs. Agnes Chase, and their colleagues. 


Ischaemum lanceolatum Keng, (Sect. Polliniopsis) sp. nov. 


Perenne, caespitosum; culmi erecti, ad 40 cm. alti, graciles, multinodiis, 
nodis inferioribus confertis ramosi, iis 2 superioribus longe remotis; vaginae 
arctae, superiores internodiis breviores, inferiores iis longiores, equitantes, 
superne carinatae, glabrae vel apice pubescentes; ligula membranacea, firma, 
2-3 mm. longa, saepe 2-partita, in vaginam decurrens; laminae lanceolatae, 
3-8 cm. longae, 6-10 mm. latae, basi subito v. sensim angustatae, acuminatae, 
summa multo abbreviata v. subulata, patentissimae, rigidae, glabrae, virides 
v. glaucescentes, marginibus scabrae; racemi in apice culmi ramorumque 
2-3-ni, 3-6 cm. longi, subgraciles, fulvi v. purpurascentes; rhacheos articuli 
spiculis sessilibus paulo vel dimidio breviores, leviter plano-convexi, ciliati; 
spiculae sessiles lanceolato-oblongae, 5-6 mm. longae, callo obtuso pilis circ. 
1 mm. longis dense barbato; gluma prima chartaceo-membranacea, 4—7- 
nervis, medio distincte sulcata, apice integra v. bidenticulata; gluma secunda 
d-nervis, primam paulo superans, acuta; lemma inferius oblongum, hyalinum, 
l-nerve v. enerve; ejus palea brevior, binervis; lemma superius in $ superiore 
bifidum, inferne.3-nerve, membranaceum, e sinu aristam perfectam 8-10 mm. 
longam emittens; spiculae pedicellatae iis sessilibus similes v. rudimentariae, 
glumis primis 5—7-nervibus, secus nervos scaberulis; pedicelli articulis similes 
sed breviores. : 

Perennial; culms tufted, suberect, up to 40 em. high, multinoded, branched 


1 Received March 17, 1931. 
* Fellowship student of the Rockefeller Foundation, from the National Central 
University, Nanking, China. 


155 


156 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 8 


below, slender and wiry above; sheaths tight, equitant at the lower nodes, 
keeled above, striate, glabrous or pubescent at the junction with the blades; 
ligule membranaceous, firm, 2-3 mm. long, usually 2-lobed, decurrent into the 
margins of the sheaths; blades lanceolate, 3-8 cm. long, 6-10 mm. wide, acute 
or acuminate, constricted at base, glabrous, rigid, glaucous, the margins 
scabrous, the uppermost much reduced or subulate; racemes 2—3-nate, erect, 
3-6 cm. long, slender, brownish or purplish; rachis joints compressed, ciliate, 
subequalling or $ shorter than the sessile spikelets; sessile spikelets 5-6 mm. 
long, lanceolate-oblong, the callus obtuse, densely bearded with hairs about 
1 mm. long; first glume chartaceo-membranaceous, 4—7-nerved, distinctly 
grooved between the median nerves, entire or bidentulate, the keels scaberu- 
lous above; second glume 3-nerved, acute, alittle longer than the first; lower 
lemma oblong, hyaline, 1-nerved or nerveless, pilose, with a shorter 2-nerved 


Fig. 1. Ischaemum lanceolatum Keng.—1-2, dorsal and ventral views of first glume, 
< 5; 3, side view of second glume, X 5; 4-5, lower lemma and its palea, X 5; 6-7, upper 
lemma and its palea, X 5; 8-9, views of a single joint and the binate spikelets, X 33. 


palea; upper lemma 2-cleft to below the middle, the lobes acute, pilose, the 
portion below the insertion of the awn membranaceous, 3-nerved; awns 8-10 
mm. long, geniculate about in the middle; pedicellate spikelets similar to the 
sessile or rudimentary, shortly awned or awnless, the first glume 5—7-nerved, 
the nerves scaberulous; pedicels ciliate as in the joints but usually shorter. 

Type in U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1501523, collected from Yunnan, 
China, altitude 2800-3000 meters, by E. E. Maire (no. 7039); duplicate type 
in the Herbarium of the University of California, no. 388785 (ex-herb. G. 
Bonati). 


This species is apparently an intermediate form between Hulalia (section 
Leptatherum) and Ischaemum, belonging to Hackel’s section Polliniopsis or 
Stapf’s Coelischaemum of the latter genus. It approaches the Indian species 
Ischaemum petiolare, but differs in the more slender and smaller habit, much 
shorter and subsessile blades, and in the fewer racemes. 


APRIL 19, 1931 KENG: NEW GRASSES FROM CHINA 157 


Rottboellia laevispica Keng, (subgen. Coelorachis) sp. nov. 


Planta annua; culmi 1 m. v. plus alti, 3 mm. crassi, striati, glabri, basi plus 
minusve geniculati, nodis inferioribus radicantes, ramis floriferis erectis, 
solitariis, simplicibus, uninodiis, lateri complanato culmi appressis; vaginae 
saltem inferiores laxae, superne leviter carinatae, laeves v. cum tuberculis 
scabrae, inferiores internodiis longiores, superiores lis breviores, apice inter- 
dum sparse barbatae; ligula rotunda, brunneo-membranacea, 0.5-1 mm. 
longa, ciliata; laminae lineari-lanceolatae, 15-40 cm. longae, 8-16 mm. latae, 
acuminatae, basi angustatae v. subrotundae, scaberulae v. inferne laeves, 
glabrae v. superne versus basin sparse papillato-pilosae, virides v. saepe 
glaucescentes, flaccidae, margine serrulato-scabrae; racemi ad 15 cm. longi, 
2-3 mm..- crassi, laeves, robusti, versus apicem attenuati, demum longe 
exserti; articuli virides v. brunnescentes, plerumque pedicellos et spiculas 
sessiles aequantes, fragiles, apice valde excavati; spiculae sessiles biflorae, 
pallide virides v. brunnescentes, callo glabro circ. 1 mm. longo e gluma prima 
suleo membranaceo separato 7-10 mm. longae; gluma prima lanceolato- 
oblonga, chartaceo-membranacea, dorso plana v. nervis elevatis striata, carina 
infra apicem angustissime alata et supra medium scaberula; gluma secunda 
primam aequans, 9-11-nervis, acuta, carina superne scaberula; lemma inferius 
glumam primam aequans, membranaceum, 3—5-nerve, palea rigidiori binervi, 
flore masculino, antheris 2-3 mm. longis; lemma superius paulo brevius, 3- 
nerve, palea angustiore, binervi; styli distincti, stigmata aequantes; spiculae 
pedicellatae plerumque ad glumam primam minutam reductae, rarissime basi 
racemi evolutae et fertiles, pedicellis tenuibus, planis, articulo arctissime 
appressis v. superne liberis. 

Annual; culms 1 m. or more high, 3 mm. thick, striate, flat or channelled on 
one side, glabrous, more or less geniculate and rooting at the lower nodes, the 
floriferous branches erect, appressed to the flat or channelled side of the culm, 
1-noded, solitary and simple; sheaths, at least the lower ones, loose, slightly 
keeled above, smooth or roughish with papillae, the lower longer, the upper 
shorter than the internodes, sometimes sparsely bearded at apex; ligule 
rounded, brownish-membranaceous, ciliate, 0.5-1 mm. long; blades linear- 
lanceolate, 15-40 cm. long, 8-16 mm. wide, acuminate, the base narrowed or 
somewhat rounded, scaberulous or smooth beneath, glabrous or sparsely 
papillose-pilose towards the base above, green or often glaucescent, flaccid, the 
margins serrulate-scabrous; racemes finally long-exserted, up to 15 em. long, 
subcylindric, 2-3 mm. thick, smooth, stout, narrower with imperfect spikelets 
towards the apex; rachis green or brownish, fragile, the joints mostly equalling 
the pedicels and sessile spikelets, strongly hollow towards the base, the summit 
deep concave; sessile spikelets 7-10 mm. long, 2-flowered, pale-green or 
brownish; callus glabrous, about 1 mm. long, separated from the first glume 
by a membranaceous furrow; first glume lanceolate-oblong, chartaceo-mem- 
branaceous, dorsally flat or striate with slightly elevated nerves, the keels 
narrowly winged at apex and scaberulous above the middle; second glume as 
long, chartaceous, 9-1l-nerved (the nerves netted above when seen under 
transmitted light), acute, the keel seaberulous above; lower lemma as long as 
the first glume, membranaceous, 3—5-nerved, with a firmer but 2-nerved 
palea, usually staminate; upper lemma a little shorter than the lower, 3- 
nerved, with a narrower 2-nerved palea; anthers 2-3 mm. long; styles distinct, 
as long as the stigmas; pedicellate spikelets mostly rudimentary, rarely well- 
developed and fertile at base of the raceme; pedicels thin, flat, broad at the 
base, closely appressed to the rachis joints or free above. 


158 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 8 


X 
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Fig. 2. Rotiboellia laevispica Keng.— 1, plant, 2 natural size; 2, sessile spikelet with 
first glume removed, showing the pistil, occasionally seen in the lower floret, X 3; 3-4, 
views of joints with sessile and pedicellate spikelets, X 14; 5-6, dorsal and ventral views 
of the first glume, X 14; 7-8, lower lemma and its palea, X 14; 9-10, upper lemma and its 
palea, X 13; 11, inner surface view of the second glume under transmitted light, X 12. 


APRIL 19, 1931 KENG: NEW GRASSES FROM CHINA 159 


Type in U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1105524 and 1346303, collected on 
prairie, West of Chu-chow, Anhwei, altitude 160 meters, September 24, 1921, 
by J. B. Griffin and A. N. Steward (no. 996); the same species collected in 
shady woods, South of I-shing, Kiangsu, August 21, 1929, by Y. L. Keng (no. 


2550). 

A distinct species of the subgenus Coelorachis, probably closely related to 
R. exaltata L. f., from which it is distinguished by the smooth green or brown- 
ish racemes, lanceolate-oblong sessile spikelets, and the thinner pedicels 
mostly equaling the rachis joints. It differs also in the glabrous sheaths, the 
sheaths of R. exaltata being coarsely hispid. 


Fig.3. Arundinella bidentata Keng.—1, part of raceme with 4 pairs of spikelets, X 23; 
2-3, ventral and dorsal views of the first glume X 7; 4-5, ventral and dorsal views of the 
second glume, X 7; 6-7, ventral and dorsal views of the lower floret, X 7; 8-9, ventral 
and dorsal views of the upper floret, X 7. 


Arundinella bidentata Keng, sp. nov. 


Perennis; culmi erecti, 50-70 cm. alti, glabri, 3-5-nodes, simplices v. a 
nodis inferioribus ramosi; vaginae laxiusculae, teretes, striatae, papillo- 
hispidae v. eae superioribus glabrae, nodis dense barbatis; ligulae membrana- 
ceae, 0.5-1 mm. longae, ciliatae; laminae e basi aequilata a vagina v. subro- 

_tundata lineares, subulato-acuminatae, 10-22 cm. longae, 2.5-5 mm. latae, 
papillo-pilosae y. inferne glabrae, firmae, saepe in sicco involutae; paniculae 
oblongae, 12—20 em. longae, ramis erectis, solitariis v. iis inferioribus 2-3 nis; 
spiculae binatae, unilaterales, 5-6 mm. longae, pedicellis altero 1-5 mm. altero 


160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 8 


3-10 mm. longis, scaberulis, versus apicem hispidis; gluma prima ovata, 
mucronata, 3-4 mm. longa, valde 3-nervis, hispida, subviolascens; gluma se- 
cunda circo 5mm. longa, ovato-lanceolata, subulato-acuminata, 5-nervis, dorso 
pilosa; lemma inferius lanceolatum, tenuiter 5-nerve, superne pilosum, glumam 
primam subaequans, paleam acuminatum bicarinatam floremque masculam 
fovens; lemma superius oblongum, callo obtuso barbato 3mm. longum, tenuiter 
3—-5-nerve, dorso scaberulo-punctatum, bidentatum, lobis laciniatis, dorso 
pilosis, e sinu aristam circo 6 mm. longam infra medium geniculatam exserens; 
palea lanceolata, ejus lemma aequans, marginibus inflexis, superne pilosis; 
antherae lineares, 1.2-1.8 mm. longae, saturate violascens; styli interdum 3, 
distincti, stigmatibus plumosis violascentibus breviores. 

Perennial; culms, erect, 50-70 cm. high, 3—-5-noded, glabrous, simple or 
branched at lower nodes; sheaths loose, terete, striate, papillose-hispid or 
the upper ones glabrous, usually shorter or the lower ones longer than the 
internodes, the nodes densely bearded with erect stiff hairs; ligule membrana- 
ceous, truncate or somewhat rounded, 0.5-1 mm. long, ciliate; blades linear, 
10-22 cm. long, 2.5-5 mm. wide, subulate at apex, continuous with the sheaths 
or rounded at base, papillose-pilose or glabrous beneath, firm, usually involute 
when dry; panicle erect, oblong, 12-20 cm. long, the main axis angular, 
scaberulous, the branches solitary, simple, subsessile, or the lower ones 2-3- 
nate, with a few short branchlets, naked at base; rachis trigonous, scaberulous 
or ciliate along the angles; pedicels of the paired spikelets unequal, one 1-5 
mm. the other 3-10 mm. long, erect, scaberulous, usually hispid towards 
the apex; spikelets binate, unilateral, 5-6 mm. long; first glume chartaceo- 
membranaceous, ovate, mucronate, 3-4 mm. long, strongly 3-nerved, hispid, 
dark purple; second glume about 5 mm. long, ovate-lanceolate, subulate- 
acuminate, 5-nerved, dorsally pilose; lower lemma lanceolate, membranaceous, 
about equaling the first glume or slightly longer, the margins hyaline, pilose 
above, with a narrower 2-nerved palea, staminate; upper lemma oblong, 3 mm. 
long,. faintly 3-5-nerved, dorsally scaberulous-punctate, bidentate, the lobes 
laciniate, dorsally pilose; callus obtuse, bearded with hairs about 1 mm. long; 
awn arising between the lobes, about 6 mm. long, twisted below, geniculate 
about one-third above the base, scaberulous; palea equaling its lemma, lanceo- 
late, 2-nerved, the margins inflexed, hyaline, pilose above; anthers linear, 1.2- 
1.8 mm. long, dark purple; styles sometimes 3, distinct, shorter than the 
plumose dark purple stigmas. 

Type in U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1270758, collected on moist hillsides 
and open lands, Kuliang, Fukien, altitude about 800 meters, July 30, 1919, 
by J. B. Norton (no. 1154); the same species collected on Sharp Peak, mouth 
of Min River, Fukien, June 1924, by F. P. Metcalf and T. C. Chang (no. 60). 


A distinct species, differing from all others in the upper lemma bidentate at 
apex, with the geniculate awn between the two laciniate pilose lobes. The 
species probably comes near to those of the subgenus Mzlzosaccharum, espe- 
cially the common Asiatic species A. setosa Trin., in which, besides the awn 
there are two lateral setae. Except that A. setosa is usually glabrous, these 
two species resemble each other. 


APRIL 19, 1931 COOK: ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN OKLAHOMA 161 


ANTHROPOLOGY—The antiquity of man as indicated at Frederick, 
Oklahoma: A reply... Harotp J. Cook, Cook Museum of 
Natural History, Agate, Nebraska. (Communicated by J. W. 
GIDLEY.) 


In this JouRNAL, 20: 475, 1930, Dr. O. F. Evans has contributed a 
criticism which brings up some points of interest in regard to the age of 
the deposits at Frederick, Oklahoma, wherein were found fossils and 
human artifacts, which we originally reported; and he has reached 
some conclusions which we feel do not accord with a comprehensive 
understanding of all the known evidence. 

His description of the old stream bed in which were found the fossils 
and artifacts described in previous papers, is in close agreement with 
my original descriptions, in most respects, but he diverges widely in 
some of his conclusions on the age of these beds, and the value of their 
included fossils and artifacts as valid evidence; and in his interpreta- 
tion of the time at which the stream which formed these beds, was 
active. 

Some of the evidence which he cites as being conclusive on points 
which he makes, is quite as susceptible of other interpretation and so, 
at best, cannot be conclusive. Likewise some of his conclusions are 
based on inaccurate or unproven premises; and so, are either distinctly 
in error, or open to serious question. 

To be specific. First, Dr. Evans recognizes three distinct phases of 
deposition in this old stream bed, (as we did, also) and says, ‘This 
(bottom) cross-bedded sandstone and conglomerate represents the 
early and normal period of the old stream’s history.”’ Then, “Above 
this old river bottom is a middle layer, ten or twelve feet thick... . .”’ 
Following, ‘‘Above this layer of water-deposited sands and gravels is 
an upper layer of several feet of material which appears to be partly 
water and partly wind deposited.”’ 

Anyone examining the extensive cuts in this bed at the Holloman 
quarries must be impressed that this division is present, and real. Yet 
in his conclusion Dr. Evans states: First; ‘It is a stream deposit,”’ 
and second; ‘‘As a stream it was subject to disturbance at any time up 
to the time the stream left the valley.”’ Obviously this implies that 
the division of the phases of the deposits he has just recognized are not 
determinable. 

Further, he infers that, since the coarse materials in the middle bed 
show that an increase in velocity has occurred, it therefore follows 
that an uplift must have occurred to produce it. A much simpler 


1 Received March 7, 1931. 


162 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 8 


solution of the cause that would produce these effects is far more prob- 
able; namely; that a temporary climatic change occurred, with in- 
creased precipitation and increased stream run-off,—which is quite in 
line with well recognized habits of climatic cycles and fluctuations. 

Now, let us return to the phases of stream deposit, and their portent. 
First, after over two years’ intensive study of the large fauna found 
in these beds, which Dr. Hay and I recently reported upon, we found no 
difference in the age of the fossils from the various layers in this old 
stream bed. They obviously pertain to a relatively short period of 
time, and represent a comparatively contemporaneous fauna. Dr. 
Evans speaks of other gravel deposits in various other localities near 
the present Red River, which “contain numerous animal remains simi- 
lar to those of the Holloman pit, such as tusks, thigh bones, etc., which 
appear, on casual examination to be what are generally referred to as 
of Pleistocene age.’’ Does he mean to suggest that such casual 
examination and identification is of weight and value, comparable to 
the results obtained as a result of comparative studies by specialists, 
as a means of identifying the age of beds? I might suggest that “‘tusks, 
thigh bones, etc.,’’ which, ‘‘on casual examination appear to be similar 
to those in the Holloman pit’’ occur in beds in stream deposits in 
which the writer has worked for over twenty years with Dr. W. D. 
Matthew, and other specialists, and date back anywhere from the early 
part of Pliocene times, some five or six million years ago, to well up 
through the Pleistocene. Casual examinations are of no value in com- 
parisons of this sort; while exact comparisons, based on an extended 
fauna, may become rather precise in their import. | 

Dr. Evans suggests a Post-Pleistocene age for this stream. Without 
stopping to analyze all of his evidence, let us consider one point. 
According to all available evidence, modern races of mammals have 
existed back that far, showing little change in that length of time. 
According to the most exact comparisons Dr. Hay and I have been 
able to make, not one single bone found in these deposits, which rs 
definitely determinable, 1s referable to a modern species. The closest 
relations and comparisons are with fossils known to have lived in the 
first half of the Pleistocene (to put it conservatively). So, if this were 
a Post-Pleistocene stream, the fossils would, of necessity, have been 
preserved as fossils some half million years or more before the 
“Frederick River’’ rewashed them into its bed, (as it must have done 
under that hypothesis). Likewise, it is safe to assume that they would 
have become fossilized in the first half-million years, and have been 
excessively fragile, even as when found now. To anyone familiar with 


APRIL 19, 1931 COOK: ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN OKLAHOMA 163 


stream deposits and with such fossils, the extreme improbability of 
their withstanding redeposition after fossilization, and still remaining 
in the condition in which we find them, is obvious, especially in the 
case of large and fragile specimens such as the Glyptodon carapace 
in the Oklahoma museum, which Evans cites. Instead of proving, 
as he evidently believes, that the lack of skeleton inside this shell 
proves redeposition, it actually proves the exact reverse! As any 
accurate field observer knows, who is familiar with the processes in 
life, such a dead animal would be eaten out of its shell, or the flesh 
would have decayed, as with modern turtles, and while yet tough and 
its bony segments firmly held by animal matter, it might be washed 
with little further damage into the muds of a stream and buried, as 
this specimen was found; but once there, for any length of time, it is 
utterly impossible that any erosion could move the specimen without 
scattering the parts of the shell, or losing and destroying them. 

The scattering and erosion of the bones found in this bed is that 
common to all similar stream deposits,—in which whole skeletons are 
rare finds. ‘The bones found are, so far as determinable, of mammal 
species known to be characteristic of the early Pleistocene, and a 
homogeneous assemblage. 

Aside from other evidence to the contrary, if that ‘‘Frederick River’ 
only a few thousand years ago, ran on what is now a high hill-top, then 
we must commend the wonderful selective wisdom it displayed in 
choosing for preservation in its bed only mammals characteristic of 
early Pleistocene times, and by no chance including the remains of 
any modern species, which surely must have lived along its course. 

Dr. Evans states that reasoning from the finding of fossils and arti- 
facts in the same bed “‘seems to be a case of trying to apply a line of 
reasoning that does not apply at all in the case of stream deposits.”’ 
This statement is hardly in accord with known facts. It is true that 
in order to evaluate evidence found in stream channels, it is necessary 
to take into consideration all types of specialized evidence, including 
all geological and paleontological data available, with more care than 
in marine deposits; consequently these problems are primarily of a 
nature whose solution must inevitably be sought by specialists in the 
field concerned, and by those who do not loosely relegate all stream 
deposits, and all fossils casually examined, to the catagory of useless 
evidence. 

As to the ‘‘Post-Pleistocene uplift,”’ or disturbance, which Dr. Evans 
first postulates, and then uses as a basis for proof,—the existence of 
such an uplift is far from a settled fact. We know much of the general 
history of such streams, and the effects that widespread elevation 


164 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 8 


and disturbances of the levels of the earth’s crust have had upon them; 
and while some such disturbances did occur, there yet remains much to 
be worked out regarding their history and effects. There is much 
excellent evidence available, however, to indicate that a general uplift 
did occur in the whole area, and extended for hundreds of miles, but 
that it occurred at a much earlier date than Post-Pleistocene, namely, 
about mid-Pleistocene time. We expect to cite and publish some of 
this evidence in another place. 

The statement made by Dr. Evans that the kinds of metates and 
arrows found in these beds are of recent age, and are as good evidence 
of the age of the beds as are the fossils, is based on unproven presump- 
tion, from one angle, and lack of consideration of known facts, from 
another, if we leave present evidence out of consideration. May I 
inquire the nature of the evidence that is available to the school of 
thought above illustrated, from which it may be stated what the people 
of Pleistocene times in America, (assuming they existed here) did or 
did not use, or what was the extent of their knowledge or lack of it? 
Where has such evidence been discovered, outside of deposits of this 
character? As previously pointed out, analogies with the cultures of 
Europe are interesting; speculations may lead to important discoveries; 
but such considerations are not proof or evidence of demonstrable fact. 
In view of the endless examples of both precocious and persistent 
primitive races among animals known to vertebrate paleontologists, 
we see no reason to believe that such conditions may not equally well 
apply to mankind. With this in mind, on present evidence, who can 
say that a precocious hunting race of nomadic people may not have 
developed, and, following the abundant game of Pleistocene times, 
have used the natural, obvious implements that such a life would 
develop,—much as did modern nomadic plains Indians—and then, 
satisfied with that state, have maintained it as a nearly static cultural 
state indefinitely, while conditions permitted? The term “‘metate”’ 
as applied to the type of stone artifact found in the ‘Frederick River”’ 
gravels is perhaps misleading. Whenever any primitive people under- 
took to store food, it is obvious that drying to cure and preserve meats, 
roots, fruits, etc:, would inevitably be the first and natural method. 
It follows, equally well, that, after it had dried until hard, such food 
would be difficult to eat, and it obviously follows that such people 
found that by placing hard, dry food on one stone and pounding it 
with another, the food could be rendered more palatable. This 
discovery, inevitably, would lead to the use of just such primitive 
“metates’? as we find here. This method must have originated 


APRIL 19, 1931 COOK: ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN OKLAHOMA 165 


independently many times in human history; and by no means can 
be considered conclusive proof of a modern culture. 

As to the statement that calculations based on rates of erosion have 
no value,—this statement is, of course, absolutely arbitrary, and in 
excess of the facts. It is true that much is yet unknown as to the 
rates of erosion of this type, and the many factors which influenced it, 
but a good deal that is certainly significant and strongly indicative of 
the probable rates of erosion, is very definitely known. If such 
evidence is to be arbitrarily thrown out because it is incomplete,— 
then the same logic applied to anthropological evidence bearing on 
pre-basket maker races in America would leave it a rather desolate 
field. It seems to me that the facts are more likely to be arrived at, 
finally, if we give all evidence in all subjects that may bear on our 
problems, most careful consideration; and not attempt to rule out, 
arbitrarily, factors not in accord with our personal views, which, after 
all, may be wrong. 


CONCLUSIONS 


Dr. Evans cites some interesting data on possible river piracy, that 
may have affected the early history of the ‘“‘Frederick River’’ and which 
should be carefully worked out and studied. 

His conclusions as to the unimportance of the evidence from the 
standpoint of fossils is certainly in error, as are also his conclusions 
that no reliable data can be had on the age or association of beds of 
this character, by the data they furnish. 

The statement of his conclusion that the artifacts found are neces- 
sarily modern, is based on inference, and not on definite knowledge,— 
and so is indeterminate. The statement that metates and artifacts of 
the same type are now found on the surface of that region, has no 
determinable value, pro or con. It is certain that quite similar arti- 
facts have been used into modern times. It is also true that a large 
part of the old “Frederick River’’ bed has already eroded away, and 
that any old artifacts that might be in such a deposit, would, in all 
probability be found, picked up, as erosion exposed them at the surface, 
and, not improbably, used by any modern Indians that found them; 
and so, be scattered. Therefore, the finding of such artifacts on the 
surface proves nothing as to the age of these deposits, either way. 

Dr. Evans’ conclusions on a ‘‘Post-Pleistocene uplift’’ in this region 
are certainly open to serious question, and, from evidence at hand, are 
believed to be in error; hence it follows that conclusions based on this 
supposition are highly questionable. 

The implication that the fossils of this bed must have been rede- 


166 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 8 


posited in their present state, is out of the question as a probability, 
as any one with long field experience with such deposits and fossils 
will know. y 

We have seen no evidence to disprove a far greater antiquity for 
this deposit than the Post-Pleistocene upon which Dr. Evans insists. 
There is abundant evidence, (such as the complete absence of modern 
mammals in this deposit, and the presence of a rich and diversified 
mammalian fauna, of extinct races typical of early Pleistocene times, 
and other confirmatory data) to support a distinct Pleistocene an- 
tiquity for this stream bed and its contents. 

The writer feels that until more evidence is assembled, it is prema- 
ture to say dogmatically that this is an Aftonian stream deposit, 
(though most of the evidence is suggestive of it), just as it is premature 
to callit modern. However, there is so much good evidence in favor of 
a Pleistocene antiquity for this bed, both from the standpoint of 
geology and paleontology, that it deserves the most careful, compre- 
hensive study, undertaken to find out the real facts, with due weight 
given to all evidence. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Cook, Haroup J. New trails of early man in America. Scientific American. August 
1927. 

Cook, Haroup J. New geological and paleontological evidence bearing on the antiquity of 
mankindin America. Nat. Hist. 27, No. 3. 1927. 

Cook, Haroup J. A new fossil bison from Texas. Proc. Colo. Mus. Nat. Hist. 8, No. 3. 
March 15, 1928. 

Cook, Haroup J. Notes on an interesting juvenile lower jaw of Elephas. of jeffersoni. 
Proc. Colo. Mus. Nat. Hist. 8, No.5. May 2, 1928. , 

Cook, Haroup J. Further evidence concerning man’s antiquity at Frederick, Oklahoma. 
Science, N.S.67. April6, 1928. 

Cook, Haroxtp J. Evidence of human artifacts in the American Pleistocene. Science, 
N.S. 62. November 20, 1925. 

Cook, Haroutp J. The antiquity of man in America: Who were the first Americans? 
Scientific American. November 1926. 

Cook, Haroup J. Glacial age manin New Mexico. Scientific American. July, 1928. 

Coox, Haroup J. More evidence of the ‘‘Folsom Culture’ race. Scientific American. 
February, 1931. 

Coox, Haroup J. and Hay, O. P. Fossil vertebrates collected near, or in association with, 
human artifacts at localities near Colorado, Texas; Frederick, Oklahoma; and Folsom, 
New Mexico. Proc. Colo. Mus. Nat. Hist. 9, No.2. October 20, 1930. 

Evans, O. F. The antiquity of man as shown at Frederick, Oklahoma: A criticism, This 
JOURNAL 20: 475. 1930. 

Fiaeins, J.D. The antiquity of manin America. Nat. Hist. 27, No.3. 1927. 

GouLp, Cuartes N. On the recent finding of another flint arrow-head in the Pleistocene at 
Frederick, Oklahoma. This JouRNAL 19: 66. 1929. 

Hay, O. P. On the antiquity of the relics of man at Frederick, Oklahoma. Science, N.S. 
27. April 27, 1928. 

Hay, O. P. On the recent discovery of a flint arrow-head in early Pleistocene deposits at 
Frederick, Oklahoma. This JouRNAL19: 93. 1929. 


APRIL 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 167 


Spier, Lesuie. Concerning man’s antiquity at Frederick, Oklahoma. Scientific News 
Letter, 67, No. 1728. February 10, 1929. 

Spier, Lesuiz. A note on reputed ancient artifacts from Frederick, Oklahoma. Science, 
68, No. 1726. August 1928. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


THE ACADEMY 
238TH MEETING 


The 238TH meeting of the AcaDEMY was held at the Cosmos Club, Febru- 
ary 20, 1931, Vice-President Curtis presiding. 

Program. Dr. M. A. Tuve of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism 
of the Carnegie Institution of Washington spoke on the subject, Artzficial 
-radium-rays from high-voltage tubes. The address was illustrated with lantern 
slides. 

All physical objects in the universe are made up of atoms, and the different 
kinds of atoms are made up of different numbers of electrons surrounding a 
heavy kernel or core called the atomic nucleus. Fairly complete information 
about these external atomic electrons has been obtained from studies of 
spectrum-lines and from other types of investigations, but there is only 
scanty knowledge about the nucleus. Most of what is known about atomic 
nuclei has been learned from two types of investigation, (1) from studies with 
radium and other radioactive substances, and (2) from measurements of the 
masses of individual atoms in the “‘mass-spectrograph,”’ which gives informa- 
tion as to the components in the nuclei and their energies of binding. All 
available evidence clearly indicates that there are two fundamental atomic 
“‘building-blocks,”’ namely, electrons and protons, the latter being hydrogen 
atom-nuclei. ‘Quanta’ of electromagnetic radiation (light-waves) should 
justly be included as a third elemental building-block of the universe. 

Radium and other radioactive elements emit three types of rays: Alpha- 
rays, which are the nuclei of helium atoms shot out with high velocities; 
beta-rays, which are high-speed electrons; and gamma-rays, which are very 
penetrating X-rays. The alpha- and beta-rays from radium have energies 
(represented by their velocities) as great as they would acquire had they been 
accelerated from a state of rest by electric potentials ranging in magnitude 
from one hundred thousand to several million volts. The gamma-rays have 
energies of the same order of magnitude although they are electromagnetic 
waves and have velocities identical with that of light. By studies of these 
rays and their interaction with other atoms much information of a funda- 
mental nature has been obtained concerning atomic nuclei. In the lecture 
typical experiments, including the recent ones of Pose, were described and 
their interpretation indicated. Since radium and other radioactive sources 
are available only in limited quantity and, what is more important, the energy- 
range of the emitted rays is distinctly limited, it has been clear for many 
years that the development of a controllable artificial source of such rays 
would greatly extend the scope of such studies. 

An effort to develop such a source of artificial ‘‘radium-rays’’ was under- 
taken in the Department of Terrestrial Magetism, of the Carnegie Institu- 
tion of Washington, in 1926 by Dr. Gregory Breit of the AcapEmy and the 
lecturer, using the potentials of several million volts produced by Tesla 
coils. Messrs. L. R. Hafstad and O. Dahl of the Department’s staff have 


168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 8 


taken a large part in the work. The development of suitable vacuum-tubes 
for such high voltages was finally achieved along lines similar to those first 
used by Dr. W. D. Coolidge, namely, by dividing the voltage among separate 
vacuum-tubes connected in cascade, with an inner hole extending through all 
tubes. Some of the technical difficulties encountered in operating vacuum- 
tubes at very high voltages were described. 

During the past year such tubes have been used in the laboratory of the 
Department with Tesla voltages up to approximately two million volts, and 
measurements have been made to verify the production of artificial beta- 
rays (high-speed electrons) and gamma-rays (very penetrating X-rays) by 
the tubes. The beta-rays were measured by their deflection in a calibrated 
magnetic field. ‘The maximum speed of the electrons measured in this way 
checked the measurement by the capacity potentiometer-method of the maxi- 
mum voltage applied to the tubes, thus verifying the previous voltage- 
measurements on the Tesla coils. The gamma-rays from the tubes were 
measured through one, two, and three inches of lead, using a Geiger-Miiller 
tube-counter. With a peak-voltage of 1,300,000 volts on the tube the absorp- 
tion-coefficient of the gamma-rays from the tube after filtering through one 
inch of lead was found to be very nearly the same as the absorption-coefficient 
of the gamma-rays from radium after passing through the same filter. Since 
most of the beta- and gamma-rays from radium have voltage-equivalents 
under 1,000,000 volts, and nearly all lie under 2,000,000 volts, the artificial 
production of beta- and gamma-rays practically covering the radium-spectrum 
has been achieved. The artificial production of the alpha-rays (high-speed 
helium nuclei) has not been attempted. Instead, experiments on high- 
speed protons (hydrogen nuclei) are in progress because results with them will 
be even more directly interpretable than similar results with helium nuclei. 
(Author’s abstract.) 


CHARLES THom, Recording Secretary. 
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 
1012TH MEETING 


The 1012th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium on November 
22, 1930, President LAMBERT presiding. 

Program: Matcotm P. Hanson: Radio with the Byrd Antarctic Expedi- 
tion.—With the aid of about sixty lantern slides, the speaker described experi- 
ences and conditions encountered on the Byrd Antarctic Expedition during 
its various phases, with particular reference to radio communication and 
research. After pointing out the difference between the Antarctic pack ice 
belt, the Ross Ice Barrier or, more appropriately, the Ross Ice shelf, and the 
saltwater Bay ice, the speaker described the establishment of “Little 
America” ten miles from the water’s edge, which required the transporting 
of five hundred tons of supplies over this distance of rough ice through months 
of dog sled hauling. Construction of the radio towers and other radio facilities 
around the camp was described, and the extensive use of radio shown to be of 
fourfold use to the Expedition, namely for safety, efficiency, scientific research, 
and morale of the personnel. The speaker showed how the long winter night 
was spent in thorough preparation for the spring’s coming exploration activi- 
ties; improved light-weight sledges were built, harnesses and clothing pre- 
pared, foodstuffs weighed out and packed, airplanes and radio facilities im- 
proved, and many other things accomplished. The peculiar radio conditions 


APRIL 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 169 


encountered during this period, such as rapid fading and multiple echoes, 
were studied largely by means of oscillograms. Determinations of height 
and condition of the Kennelly-Heaviside layer were instituted by transporting 
and setting up the receiving equipment and oscillograph on several trips, 
five to ten miles from Little America, and taking runs over at least 24 hours on 
special signals sent out from the base, over a wide frequency range. 

The need for ski practice and a certain amount of outdoor exercise despite 
the darkness and temperatures which went to —72.8°F., caused installation of 
a powerful beacon light atop one of the radio towers to help guide anyone 
back to camp who might get lost in darkness or blizzard; a group of additional 
small flashing lights was in everyday use and conveniently showed the location 
of camp to men out walking. Ryme, fog, and even a light rain were experi- 
enced in sub-zero weather, and ice crystals in the air gave rise to many 
beautiful phenomena. Daily radio messages and news bulletins from various 
parts kept the expedition in touch with the world and radio concerts were 
frequently received and helped to break the monotony. 

With the coming of spring, in October, the supporting party laid down 
depots every fifty miles for two hundred miles to the south, and with the 
newly-constructed portable radio equipment, deriving its transmitting power 
from batteries or from a little hand-operated generator, was able to maintain 
regular radio contact with the base. The snowmobile party, which followed 
in its tracks, had a breakdown 85 miles from home, and had to walk back, 
pulling a sledge with their sleeping bags, tent, and emergency rations behind 
them. The geological party made a long dog sled trip to the south, covering 
over eleven hundred miles in three months, while maintaining regular radio 
communication with their portable set. 

Many airplane flights were made for exploration and aerial mapping pur- 
poses, the chief ones being the base laying flight, the south polar flight, the 
eastern flight to King Edward and Marie Byrd land, and the western flight 
over the Ross Barrier. The speaker showed the radio equipment with 
which the planes maintained radio communication with the base during these 
flights, and explained the special radio safeguards at Little America consist- 
ing of a directional radio beacon and of a radio compass, both of which would 
have been of great assistance in guiding the planes back in case of thick 
weather. Such a condition, fortunately, never arose during a flight, thanks 
to the expert weather predictions of our meteorologists. In addition to 
frequent poor visibility due to lack of shadows or horizon in overcast weather 
the greatest difficulties in flying operations were the uncertainty of snow 
surface for take-offs when away from the base, and the need for laborious 
heating of each engine and its oil before it could be started. The ski landing 
gears functioned admirably, except on a few sunny days in mid-summer when 
the temperature rose to near the melting point and caused the runners to 
stick to such an extent that a scheduled photographic flight was postponed for 
colder weather in order to preclude damage on landing. 

The unusually heavy pack ice belt prevented the expedition vessels which 
had set out from New Zealand from reaching the barrier party until the end 
of the summer, when the City of New York managed to get through the 
pack and, caught in a heavy storm, was carried 400 miles off her course to the 
westward before reaching Little America. In passing through the pack she 
had observed the ice already to be freezing together again due to the late 
season, so in order to minimize the chance of being caught in the pack she 
remained at the Barrier only long enough to take aboard the men, dogs, and 


170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 8 


the most essential supplies, before heading north again. The planes, houses, 
and most of the supplies had to be left behind. 

The scientific radio records brought back include some 1500 oscillograms 
and about 2000 radio log sheets, besides a great number of fading records 
which were taken in New Zealand. A detailed analysis of these data is now 
under way, and when completed should throw considerable light upon many 
phases of radio wave propagation. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Mr. H&cx. 


1013TH MEETING 


The 1013th meeting, constituting the 60th annual meeting, was held in the 
Cosmos Club Auditorium, December 6, 1930, President LAMBERT presiding. 

The treasurer reported expenditures of $2578.55 for the year, including the 
purchase of a real estate note and an item of $312.31 for printing the article 
on the 1000th meeting. He stated that the number of active members is 
227. 

The Secretaries reported that the following new members were elected dur- 
ing the year: Miss G. Back, E. 8. Betors, R. H. Canrretp, G. W. GARDINER, 
L. W. Harstep, H. D. Harrapon, J. P. Lusuensn, R. J. Seucur, K. L. 
SHERMAN, F. M. Soutsz, O. W. Torruson, C. B. Watts. 

The death of ASapH Haut was reported. 

The following officers were declared elected for the year 1931: President, 
H. L. Curtis; Vice Presidents, L. B. TucKERMAN and O. 8. Apams; Recording 
Secretary, G. R. Wart; Treasurer, N. H. Heck; Members-at-large of the General 
Committee, C. Hurr and W. D. SuTcuirFs. 

At the conclusion of the business meeting Dr. P. R. Hryu spoke on A re- 
port on the redetermination of the constant of gravitation—Three sets of measure- 
ments of the constant of gravitation were made, using the torsion balance in 
vacuum, with small masses of gold, platinum and optical glass. The results 
with the gold balls are open to some uncertainty because of an absorption of 
mercury vapor derived from the manometer in connection with the apparatus. 
The mean results are as follows: 


Gold 6.678 -0.003 
Platinum 6.664 +0.002 
Glass 6.674 +0.002 


Weighting these in the ratio 1:3:3 the final mean is 6.670 +0.005. 
The difference between the values for platinum and glass is not to be 
ascribed to a variation of the constant of gravitation with the material. A 
special experiment to test this point was carried out with one platinum and 
one glass ball, using the method of Edtvés. No difference was found as great 
as one part in 10 million. (Avwthor’s abstract.) 
Discussed by Messrs. PawLinc, LAMBERT, HAWKESWORTH, GISH, WRIGHT, 
and HuMPHREYS. 
Oscak 8. Apams, Recording Secretary. 


1014TH MEETING 


The 1014th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday 
evening, January 3, 1931, President Curtis presiding. 
The address of the evening was given by the retiring President, W. D. 
LAMBERT, on The variation of latitude. 
G. R. Wait, Recording Secretary. 


APRIL 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 171 


ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
422ND MEETING 


The 422nd regular meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington 
was held at 8 p.m., Thursday, October 2nd, in Room 43 of the U.S. National 
Museum, ex-president J. A. Hystor presiding. There were present 27 mem- 
bers and 20 visitors. 

The first communication on the regular program was a paper by AusTIN H. 
CiaRK entitled Notes on the behavior and migration of the milkweed butterfly. — 
The milkweed butterfly (Danais plexippus), which is normally not very com- 
mon in the District of Columbia and immediately adjacent region, appeared 
in great numbers on September 17th and 18th in the meadows west of Cabin 
John following a heavy rain on September 16th. The individuals were ob- 
served to devote themselves wholly to feeding, becoming increasingly sociable, 
for about three days. On September 20th they became restless and a few 
were seen high in the air passing toward Great Falls (west) before a moderate 
wind. Their numbers in the fields had decreased, and those that remained 
showed a desire to rest on trees instead of among the goldenrods and asters 
as they had done previously. On September 24th they appeared in Washing- 
ton, becoming frequent in all parts of the city on the following day. On 
September 26th only about a dozen were found in the fields, and all of these 
had certainly been less than a week on the wing. Nothing in these observa- 
tions indicates any departure from the normal life of the adult of this butter- 
fly—about three days of intensive feeding followed by a much longer period 
of wandering and later of reproduction combined with wandering. At any 
time during the summer the insects may be observed, as individuals, flying at 
a great height. From this general region two migrations have been reported. 
In one the butterflies were flying south against the wind and in the other they 
were flying north with the wind. ‘Those we saw were flying west with the 
wind. Most of the migrations which have been reported, however, have been 
southerly, especially in the central part of the continent. It was suggested 
that the migrations of this butterfly are in reality mere aimless wanderings 
having their inception in the simultaneous appearance of large numbers of 
individuals which happen to reach the wandering stage at the same time, and 
further that these migrations take their direction primarily from the prevail- 
ing meteorological conditions of the season and secondarily from geographical 
features, especially rivers and the sea coast. In other words, the migrations of 
this insect are simply the mass expression of the normal habits of the indi- 
vidual at all times. It was pointed out that the butterflies commonly seen in 
groups on muddy spots—in this region especially Colzas philodice and Kurema 
-lisa and not far away also Catopszlia eubule and Eurema nicippe—are almost 
exclusively fresh males, and that with the coming in of a new brood the insects 
appear in numbers on mud before they do in the fields. In the exceptionally 
dry summer of 1930 when all butterflies were scarce, no butterflies frequented 
the puddles at Cabin John, whereas in the previous normal year puddle butter- 
flies had been common, even soon after a rain. It was deduced from the 
evidence that the butterflies about puddles are surplus males which have been 
driven out of the fields by persecution by older males at the time—immedi- 
ately following emergence from the pupa—when they normally occupy them- 
selves chiefly in intensive feeding, and that the appearance of puddle butter- 
flies is therefore caused by overcrowding in the areas where the food plant is 
found and wherein the females more or less constantly remain. In the absence 
of the rivalry incited by the presence of females the young males of these 


172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 8 


pierids become gregarious. A large proportion of these males probably go 
back to the fields as the older males die off. But there is an unassimilible 
surplus, and it is probably from this unassimilible surplus, consisting of males 
that have been driven out into the regions devoid of females that the migrating 
swarms of these and related pierids are composed. ‘These swarms fly in a 
more or less straight line against the wind just as single traveling males of the 
species concerned are often seen to do. On the Atlantic seaboard in the late 
summer Catopsilia eubule is sometimes observed migrating northward at the 
same season when, and in the same places where, Danais plexippus is migrat- 
ing southward. In the fields at Cabin John where Danais plexippus was 
noticed going west with the wind toward Great Falls Catopsilia eubule is 
occasionally seen at the same season flying directly east against the wind. 
Unless the migrations of these pierids and the danaid are to be explained as a 
collective expression of the normal actions of the individuals of the species 
concerned, it is difficult to understand why two primarily tropical species— 
Danats plexippus and Catopsilia eubule—should migrate in opposite Use 
at the same season. (Author’s abstract.) 

This paper was discussed by Hystop, Larrimer, Buscx, Fiend and 
HOLLAND. 

The second communication on the program was given by S. A. RoHWER 
and was entitled Remarks on the present status of some «insect pests 
which are subject to federal quarantine.—By the use of lantern slides the 
speaker discussed outstanding events connected with regulatory and control 
work on the Mexican fruit worm, Gipsy moth, Satin moth, Japanese beetle, 
Mediterranean fruit fly, and the European corn borer. In discussing the 
work on the Mexican fruit worm he pointed out that no infestation of this 
pest was known to exist in the United States. The last incipient infestation 
was discovered in Brownsville on November 19, 1929 and was confined to a few 
trees on two residential properties. Following this discovery intensive control 
and cleanup work was inaugurated and spraying operations were carried on in 
United States until March, 1930, and are still being carried on in Matamoros 
in codperation with the Mexican Government. ‘Traps are being used as an 
aid in detecting presence of the fly both in the United States and in Mexico. 
Referring to the work on Gipsy moth, the speaker discussed briefly the infes- 
tation which was found on Long Island in November 1929, adding that this 
infestation was now under control and that no recent evidence of infesta- 
tion had been found. He also stated that shipments made from the nurseries 
where infestation was known had all been traced and only one showed evi- 
dence of infestation and that was a single dead egg cluster which was located at 
Interlaken, New Jersey. Work done during the summer indicated that the 
Satin moth occurred over a considerably larger territory and that in some areas 
it has caused a rather intensive defoliation. A map showing localities where 
the Japanese beetle had been found as a result of scouting during the summer 
was also exhibited and explained in some detail. In discussing work on the 
Mediterranean fruit fly the speaker explained methods used in making inten- 
Sive inspections over the State and stated that no infestation had been found 
since two pupae were discovered in soil under fallen fruit in a yard at St. | 
Augustine on July 25, 1930. ‘To show the thoroughness of the inspection work 
figures indicating the number of specimens which were referred for identifica- 
tion were given. It was pointed out that these specimens consisted largely of 
dipterous larvae which could not be separated from Mediterranean fruit fly 
larvae by any one other than a specialist. In discussing the work on the 
European corn borer the author used maps showing the distribution of the 


_ APRIL 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 173 


corn borer as determined by scouting which was done during the summer of 
1930. The apparent reduction in abundance of the corn borer in the area in 
which it was known to occur was also briefly discussed. (Author’s abstract.) 

This paper was discussed by LARRIMER. 

Remarks were made on invitation by Dr. W. J. Hatt, a visitor from the 
British South African Company of Rhodesia, S. Africa, who expressed his 
pleasure at being with us and who gave us a brief resume of his work during 
the past four years on insect pests of citrus plants in South Africa. The major 
pests discussed by him were the citrus thrips, Scirtothrips aurantit Faure, and 
the Citrus aphis, Aphis taveresia Del. Wg.; red scale, Aonzdiella aurantii 
Mask.; the cotton bollworm, Heliothus obsoleta Fab.; and the Mediterranean 
fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata Wied. He also made mention of some of his ento- 
mological work covering a seven-year assignment in Egypt. His itinerary 
included visits to Florida and California and an extensive study of our research 
and quarantine work on citrus pests. 

Dr. Morrison reported briefly on the recent safe arrival at the National 
Museum of the famous Barnes collection of Lepidoptera concerning which a 
more detailed discussion will be given later in the year,—probably by Mr. 
BUSCcK. 

Brief greetings also were extended to the society by two other visitors, 
Professor FRENcH, State Entomologist of Virginia, and Dr. M. W. Buackman, 
formerly of Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y., now of the U. 8S. Bureau of 
Entomology, Washington, D. C. 

Dr. J. M. Aupricu discussed briefly the present procedure of our society 
in publishing its minutes in the Journal of the Washington Academy of 
Sciences rather than in the proceedings of the Entomological Society of Wash- 
ington, and stated that he would discuss this matter more fully at a subse- 
quent meeting. 


423RD MEETING 


The 423rd meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington was held 
at 8 p.m., Thursday, November 6, 1930, in Room 43 of the new building of the 
National Museum, President J. E. Grar presiding. There were present 42 
members and 385 visitors. 

The following individuals, all connected with the Bureau of Entomology, 
were admitted to membership: Mrs. Marcarretr C. Mansuy, Miss Louise 
M. Russevt, Miss Ipa Wecxerty, Dr. M. W. Buackman, and Mr. P. W. 
OMAN. 

The first communication on the regular program was given by RospErt E. 
SNODGRASS and was entitled From an egg to an insect. The paper comprised 
a resumé of the principal facts on record concerning the subject. A consider- 
able number of slides were shown and explained in detail. The paper was dis- 
cussed by McINpboo. 

The second communication on the program was a talk by Prof. S. W. 
Frost of Pennsylvania State College on Animal life on Barro Colorado Island. 
—Barro Colorado is the largest island in Gatun Lake, Panama. It was set 
aside by the governor of the Canal Zone in 1923 as a preserve where any 
qualified scientist could have an opportunity to study the wild life of a typical 
rain-drenched tropical jungle. ‘The island is conveniently reached by train 
from Panama City or Colon. Descending at the little waystation, Frijoles, 
where bananas are usually in evidence, the scientist is taken by launch across 
the canal, a distance of about three miles, to Barro Colorado Island. Here 
the scientist finds shelter, a comfortable bed, good food, tables and all the 


174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 8 


necessary equipment for general investigation. Knowing that all the essen- 
tials and comforts of life are abundantly provided for, he can direct his entire 
time and attention to the sole purpose for which he came. Botanists, orni- 
thologists, entomologists, zoologists and many others have availed themselves 
of the excellent opportunities made possible through the efforts of the local 
custodian, Mr. James Zetek, and through the zeal of Dr. Thomas Barbour and 
others who have spent unlimited time in planning and developing the labora- 
tory. In addition to the two story laboratory building, there is a guest house 
for visitors, and Dr. Frank Chapman has a small house of his own. At the 
far side of the Island, on the Drayton and Allison Armour trails, one-room 
shacks have been built, known as termite houses for they are a part of a proj- 
ect to determine the resistance of different building materials to termite 
injury. They also serve as shelters when one is working on this side of the 
island. They are stocked with provisions, provided with cots and blankets 
and ready to serve the scientist at any time. Here the writer was the first to 
sample tea after the rainy season and being very thirsty drank a cupful almost 
in one draught only to find that it was miserably musty. This, however, was 
offset by a fine fish hooked just a few feet from the steps of the shack. He did 
not recognize the fish and no one will ever know what species it was. The 
island has an area of about six square miles and is, for the most part, densely 
covered with vegetation. A small clearing has been made near the laboratory 
where bananas, pineapples and a few other plants are grown. The western 
half of the island is virgin forest of the finest description. ‘The elevation at 
the center is only 452 feet above the level of the lake; still one finds travelling 
strenuous enough on some of the trails and impenetrable in places, when off 
the trails. ‘There are over twenty-five miles of trails leading from the labora- 
tory to various points on the shore line. The trails are named after scientists 
as ‘‘Wheeler,” ‘‘Barbour,’”’ ‘“‘Zetek,”’ ‘Shannon,’ or after benefactors as 
‘‘Allison Armour.’ They are uniquely marked every ten meters by a metal 
tag fastened to a tree. This makes it very easy for visiting scientists to find 
their way and convenient in reporting things of interest, along the trails. 
The large trees always attract attention. Bombacopsis sometimes attains a 
circumference of 190 feet at the base, including the great buttresses, and 
towers 150 feet above the forest floor. Here the howlers like to roost far from 
the danger of other animals. Adjacent to the laboratory a magnificant group 
of trees rise 100 feet from the edge of the lake. The American Museum of 
Natural History features a habitat group which does justice to these trees 
with their twining lianas and abundant bird life. It was here that the writer 
had his first glimpse of Barro Colorado Island. Great clumps of epiphytes, 
aroids, bromeliads and orchids frequently adorn the bare limbs of trees. From 
the laboratory we could see a limb supporting a world of life itself. Indi- 
vidual plants, some perhaps new to science, could be distinguished with field 
glasses, but the tree was too tall and too remote in the jungle to be conven- 
iently reached by man. The plants of special interest to the writer were the 
hosts of leaf-mining insects. They ranged from the low growing weeds to the 
tallest trees. Nearly three hundred specimens were brought back and twenty- 
five new plant records added to the flora of the island. Animals and birds 
were abundant and, as hunting was prohibited, they were unusually tame. 
From the laboratory alone, two or three species of monkeys were frequently 
seen. The coati often came to feed at the garbage pile or climbed the papaya 
to steal fruits. The puma was heard not far distant from the laboratory on 
several successive nights and finally took its own picture by flash light for 
Dr. Chapman. The birds were too numerous and interesting to pass with a 


APRIL 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 175 


few words. Some made indelible impressions on our minds that will last 
forever. The familiar sound of the dropping of heavy dew from the trees at 
dawn or the notes of the goat sucker will always recall mornings when we 
awoke refreshed for our work. The muffled notes of the owls greeted us as 
Dr. Chapman remarks, ‘‘bidding the day ‘Good night’.’’ Along the trails the 
noisy toucans and guans frequently startled us. The wrens and the oro- 
pendulas provided us with more pleasant music. ‘Towards the close of day 
the parrots and parakeets amused us as they flew from tree to tree getting 
ready to settle down for the night. He who travels cautiously on the trails is 
sure to see and hear many animals and birds even though he be an entomologist 
with his whole nervous system fastened on a tiny insect just ready to take 
flight. The coati was seen more frequently than any of the other animals. 
One day in making a turn on Fairchilds trail the writer came upon three 
coati feeding upon the inner fleshy pulp that surrounds the seeds of the monkey 
comb (A peiba aspera). Some other animals, possibly parrots, had been feed- 
ing there before and had split open many of the pods. The seeds missed by 
the parrots and avoided by the coatis, yielded a new species of Bruchid for the 
entomologist. The collared peccary. was seen on many different occasions. 
One day the writer watched about twenty-five file across the trail fifteen feet 
ahead of him. As the last animal passed, the writer raised his insect net, the 
animal paused for a moment then slowly walked away. At the next bend in 
the trail he came upon the same herd of peccaries. They were travelling 
nearly in a straight line while the writer was following the crooked trail. 
Again he waited for them to pass and at the same time took a few motion 
pictures. The larger animals as the puma, the tapir and the deer are seldom 
seen. Dr. Frank Chapman has the distinction of being the only one that has 
seen a puma on the Island. He has however taken many excellent pictures of 
pumas, ocelots and tapirs in the low wet places on the Island. Whoever 
spends a little time on the Island soon becomes acquainted with the monkeys. 
The howlers take to the tree tops and are more frequently heard than seen. 
The passing airplanes disturb their peace and they set up a terrific roar. The 
white faced monkeys are encountered more often. They are inquisitive little 
fellows and are as anxious to see their peculiar relatives as we are to view them. 
By remaining quiet they would play about the branches for a long time, peer 
down at us and even descend to a lower level in hopes of getting a better view. 
A little noise or motion disturbs them and they go scampering over the tree 
tops with more agility than man walks on the ground. Along the shores of the 
island the basalisks and iguana were seen frequently. The basalisks were 
especially numerous. They were difficult to locate for they had the habit of 
remaining perfectly quiet for a long period of time and blended well in color 
with their background. When disturbed they skipped over the water with 
tremendous speed. With a little care one could paddle a cayuca within eight 
or ten feet of them. There is no doubt that one can see more tropical life on 
Barro Colorado Island than by penetrating the average jungle, for the trails 
are used by animals as well as man and further permit man to travel noiselessly 
and easily to remote parts of the island. It is remarkable to think of sucha 
comparatively small bit of land housing such a large fauna and flora. All 
visiting scientists have found its climate enticing and its resources unlimited. 

Several reels of motion pictures were shown covering various phases of 
animal and plant life on the Island. 


424TH MEETING 


The 424th regular meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington was 
held at 8 p.m., Thursday, December 4, in Room 43 of the new building of the 


176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 8 


National Museum, President J. E. GraF presiding. There were present 31 
members and 11 visitors. Mr. W. D. Resp, of the U. 8. Entomological 
Laboratory at Danville, Va., was elected to membership on recommendation 
of the Executive Committee. 

A motion was offered by Dr. J. M. Aupricu as follows: Moved, that the 
Executive Committee be instructed to arrange for the publication of the 
minutes of our meetings in our own Proceedings hereafter, beginning with the 
January meeting. In commenting on the motion, Doctor AupRicH stated 
that the minutes of the society for several years past have been published in 
the Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences and that such procedure 
appeared inconsistent with the fact that our only publication was entitled 
“‘Proceedings.”’ He read some comparative figures regarding space require- 
ments and publication costs, and indicated that he for one would be willing to 
aid pro rata in whatever increased cost of publication the adoption.of this 
motion might entail. After comments by Ewinc, Hystop, and Rouwer, 
the latter speaking against the motion, the society voted 12 to 11 in favor of 
the motion. 

The following were elected officers of the society for 1931: President: A. C. 
Baker; First Vice-President: F. C. BisHopp; Second Vice-President: C. T. 
GREENE; Recording Secretary: J. 8S. WapE; Editor: W. R. Wauton; Corre- 
sponding Secretary-Treasurer: 8. A. Ronwer; Representative of the Washing- 
ton Academy of Sciences: H. Morrison; Executive Commitiee: The officers 
and T. E. Snyper, A. N. CaupE.1, W. H. Larrimer. 

During intervals in the election of officers, a note was presented by Dr. 
W. D. Prerce on The mango weevils.—A number of species of weevils breed 
in the seed of mango in the Orient, and as they have not all been listed in their 
proper genus it is well to publish the following notes on the synonymy of the 
genus Sternochetus to which four of the mango weevils belong. 


Genus Sternochetus (Kolbe) Hubenthal (1915) 


Sternochetus (Kolbe) Hubenthal (1915) Ent. Mitt., 4: 128, type mangiferae 
Fabricius. Below is cited the synonymy of the mango weevils which may be 
assigned to this genus: 


Sternochetus mangiferae (Fabricius) Hubenthal 


Curculio mangiferae Fabricius (1792) Ent. Syst., 17: 432, No. 161. 

Rhynchaenus mangiferae Fabricius (1801) Syst. Eleuth., 2: 473, No. 173. 

Cryptorhynchus mangiferae Schénherr (1826) Cure. Disp. Meth., p. 282; 
Boheman (1837) Schénherr’s Gen. et Sp. Cure., 4: 91. 

Sternochetus mangiferae Hubenthal (1915) Ent. Mitt., 4, No. 4-6, pp. 128, 
129; Pierce (1917) Manual of Dangerous Insects, p. 144, fig. 72. 

Originally described from seeds of mango in India orientalis. Recorded by 
Boheman from India orientalis, Bengalia, Java, He-de-France, Madagascar. 
According to Lefroy is confined to Southern India and Ceylon. 

This is the species most commonly known as the Mango Weevil. It has 
ben written about by many authors and its habits are pretty well known. It 
breeds in the seed of the mango. 


Sternochetus gravis (Fabricius) Pierce 


Curculio gravis Fabricius (1792) Ent. Syst., 12: 485, no. 172. Cape of Good 
Hope. 
Rhynchoenus gravis Fabricius (1801) Syst. Eleuth., 2: 481, no. 203. 


APRIL 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 177 


Cryptorhynchus gravis Stebbing (1914) Indian Forest Insects, p. 436, fig. 289. 

Sternochetus gravis Pierce (1917) Manual of Dangerous Insects, pp. 1438, 
144, fig. 71. 

Stebbing calls this the Northern Mango Weevil of India. The larvae first 
feed in the pulp and then enter the seed. 

Habitat: United Provinces, Bengal, Assam. 


Sternochetus frigidus (Fabricius) Pierce 


Curculio frigidus Fabricius (1787) Mant. Ins. App., p. 381. 

Curculio chinensis Olivier (1790) Encyce. Meth., Ins., 5: 507, no. 166. 

Rhynchaenus frigidus (chinensis) Fabricius (1801) Syst. Eleuth., 2: 470, 
471, no. 158. 

Rhynchaenus chinensis Olivier (1807) Entomologie, 5, no. 83, p. 175; tab. 
8, fig.97. The plate is referred to by Olivier (1790) and Fabricius (A801). 

Cryptorhynchus frigidus Rosenschoeld (1837) Schénherr’s Gen. et Sp. Curc., 
As hl 5. 

Cryptorhynchus frigidus Faust (1894) Ann. Mus. Genova, ser. 2, 14 (34): 
287. 

Fabricius records from Amboina; Rosenschoeld from India orientalis, 
Bengal, Java, Madagascar, New Holland; Faust from Burma. 

Faust records it as bred from fruit of mango. 


Sternochetus oliviert (Faust) Pierce 


Cryptorhynchus oliviert Faust (1893) Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr., 61: 518, 519. 

Cryptorhynchus oliviert Faust (1894) Ann. Mus. Genova, ser. 2, 14 (34): 
287. 

Faust (1893) recorded it from Saigon and (1894) from Schwegoo (Burma). 

It attacks mango in Java, material having been received from Buitenzorg, 
collected by Paul Vandergoot. 


Sternochetus poricollis (Faust) Pierce 


Cryptorhynchus poricollis Faust (1894) Ann. Mus. Genova, ser. 2, 14 (34): 
287, 288. 

Recorded from Burma. I have no definite host record on this species. 

(Author’s abstract.) 
' Doctor ALpRIcH mentioned receiving a letter from one of his acquaintances 
in the British Museum in London, advising that the entomological section 
recently has moved into new quarters on the ground floor, in which twice as 
much room is now available for entomological work. This was commented 
on by Hystop. 

J. G. SANDERS, of Philadelphia, and E. A. RicHmMonp, of SEE tay Mass., 
both visitors, on invitation greeted the society and expressed pleasure at 
being with us. 

Mr. GrarF referred to the recent publication of a book by Doctor Howarp, 
entitled A history of applied entomology, and this was discussed very briefly 
by LARRIMER and EwIne. 

Austin H. Ciark commented briefly on some recent work performed by 
him in making photographs of butterfly wings and showed several specimens 
of his work. Comments were made on his remarks by Grar, Morrison, 
RouWER, PIERCE, and Hystop. 

The first communication on the regular program was given by Dr. H. E. 
EwInG and was entitled The distribution and host relationships of ectoparasites, 
with special reference to chiggers.—The distribution of fleas in North America 
was discussed and a map presented showing the localities in the United States 


178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 8 


from which specimens of the human flea, Pulex irritans Linnaeus, have been 
taken. This flea occurs generally throughout the more humid parts of the 
Mississippi Valley, along the Pacific slope and in a restricted area in the 
Middle Atlantic States. The probable reasons for its absence from more 
than half the area of our country were discussed. Preliminary results of an 
ectoparasite survey of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, of the South 
Atlantic Slope of the United States, were presented. This showed amphibians 
to be the most heavily parasitized of the four classes with chiggers, the per cent 
being 23.8. Mammals, on the other hand, had the highest percentage of 
infestation with all ectoparasites (57.1 per cent). The degree of infestation 
with ectoparasites for the four classes of vertebrates considered was shown 
also by plotted curves. Recent advances made by others concerning the 
distribution and host relationships of parasites were mentioned and discussed. 
Live specimens of some of the more important natural hosts of our common 
chigger, Trombicula irritans (Riley), were exhibited. (Author’s abstract.) 

A considerable number of slides and specimens of various animal forms were 
shown. The paper was discussed by Hystop, WapLny, BisHopp, ALDRICH, 
and PIERCE. 

J.S. Wapku, Recording Secretary. 


(Editor’s Note.—In accordance with action taken at the 424th meeting, further pro- 
ceedings of the Entomological Society will be published in the Proceedings of the Ento- 
mological Society of Washington.) 


GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
471ST MEETING 


The 471st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club January 14, 1931, President 
MBINZER presiding. 

Program: Symposium on drought of 1930. 

A. H. Horton: The Potomac River and the drought of 1930.—The Potomac 
River is one of the larger streams in the United States which drain into the 
Atlantic Ocean. Its drainage area is larger than that of the Connecticut, 
Hudson, Delaware, James, or Savannah Rivers and about half as large as 
that of the Susquehanna River. The drainage area of the Potomac River at 
Great Falls is about 11,500 square miles—about 10 per cent less than the 
combined area of Massachusetts and Connecticut. The altitude of the basin 
ranges from sea level at Washington to about 3,000 feet at the divide on the 
south and west. The North Branch is considered the main stem of the river 
even though the drainage area of the South Branch is somewhat larger. 

The average or normal annual precipitation of the basin is about 40 inches. 
The maximum annual precipitation of about 47 inches occurred in 1891. The 
minimum previous to 1930 was about 31 inches in 1895. 

Records of the flow of the river at Great Falls or at Point of Rocks are 
available since 1896. During this period of about 33 years there were five 
large floods ranging from 175,000 second-feet to 265,000 second-feet, the 
largest of these being the flood of May, 1924. The maximum known flood, 
however, was that of June, 1889, which was caused by a rainfall on the basin 
of 5.3 inches in three days. The maximum discharge of this flood was about 
390,000 second-feet at Great Falls, roughly 50 per cent larger than the flood of 
May, 1924. Storms with much greater rainfall have occurred along the 
Atlantic Coast, but fortunately they have missed the Potomac basin. 

The rainfall on the Potomac River basin in 1930 was approximately 22 


APRIL 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 179 


inches, about 55 per cent of the normal and about 35 per cent less than in the 
driest year previous to 1930. The mean daily flow at Great Falls for the 
lowest 7-day period in 1930 was 821 second-feet in August, 25 per cent less 
than the previous record, and the mean daily flow for the lowest month in 
1930 was 870 second-feet in October, about 45 per cent less than the previous 
record. During the 33 years of record from 1897 to 1929, the flow at Great 
Falls was less than 1,000 second-feet for only 38 days, while in 1930 the flow 
was less than 1,000 second-feet for 83 days during the period August to 
October. This flow was almost wholly from underground sources for there 
was but little surface runoff, as the small amount of precipitation during 
these months was mostly absorbed by vegetation. 

The supply of ground water has probably been seriously depleted and 
unless precipitation occurs this year under conditions favorable for replenish- 
ing the ground-water supply, the flow of the Potomac River during the low- 
water period of 1931 will probably be less than for 1930. In this connection, 
it should be noted that the flow for the minimum week of 821 second-feet was 
at least five times the amount needed for the city of Washington. (Author’s 
abstract.) 

Miss M. D. Fostrer: The effect of the drought upon the quality of the water of 
the Potomac River—Two charts compare the fluctuations of discharge, 
turbidity and total hardness of the water of the Potomac River for a normal 
year (October, 1928-September, 1929) and for the period October, 1929 to 
December, 1930. Ina normal year (as shown in the first chart) the discharge 
is relatively low in the fall, rises in the winter, with several high stages in the 
spring, decreases in June and July, and is again low in the late summer and 
fall. The turbidity, which is relatively proportional to the material in sus- 
pension, follows in a general way the discharge; any disagreements may be 
attributed to local rains which erode parts of the drainage basin more or less 
than an average amount. The hardness, plotted to indicate changes in 
quality, varies inversely with the discharge—being relatively high in the fall, 
low in the spring and increasing again in the late summer and early fall. 

The second chart shows that the whole period—October, 1929 to December, 
1930—was abnormal; high stages of the river in the fall, lower peaks than 
normal in the spring (a maximum of about 35,000 second feet in 1930 as com- 
pared with a maximum of 173,000 second feet in 1929), and after the middle of 
July a uniformly low discharge of 800-900 second feet until the last of Decem- 
ber. With the earlier decrease in discharge the hardness of the water began 
to increase at an earlier date than usual and continued high longer, reaching a 
maximum of 136 parts per million, as compared with a maximum of 111 parts 
per million in the fall of 1929. The drought continued until the 27th day of 
December, when the hardness was 134 parts per million. On December 28, 
the hardness dropped to 31 parts per million, simultaneously with a rise in 
discharge greater than since April and with a great increase in turbidity. 
The increase in hardness with decrease in discharge may be attributed to the 
greater proportion of spring water present. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Frercuson, E. 8. Hopkins, and Davip WHITE. 

Caru J. Lauter: Effect of the drought on filtration processes for the Washing- 
ton water supply. Discussed by Hrss and BrabDLey. 

W.N. Waite: Effects of the drought on wells and springs. 

Discussed by Mztnzrr, Rusry, Laurer, McQuEEn, and THOMPSON. 

H. B. Humpurey: Influence of vegetation on stream flow during the drought.— 
During the period September 1 to October 12, inclusive, daily observations on 
the rate of stream discharge were carried on by the author at his home in 


180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 8 


Cabin John, Md. The stream, fed by springs, lies in a deep ravine and dis- 
charges into a small reservoir. In this ravine there were growing and drawing 
upon the water supply, at the time the readings were made, 32 trees of various 
species and sizes plus a fairly dense undergrowth of shrubs and annuals. It 
was observed that between 2:30 p.m. and 7:30 p.m. no water was discharging 
from the stream. Beginning at about 7:30 p.m. there was a mere trickle and 
the rate of discharge increased hourly until between 5:00 and 7:00 a.m. when 
it attained a maximum of 4.78 quarts per minute. This maximum flow was 
maintained until about 9:30 a.m. when it began to decline, ceasing altogether 
at 2:30 p.m. It was subsequently shown that this diurnal variation in 
stream discharge was directly related to the transpiration carried on by the 
dependent trees and associated plant growth. Factors, such as light and tem- 
perature, affected the water intake of the vegetation and registered their 
effect on the rate of stream discharge. Later, when the leaves fell from the 
trees and transpiration processes had ceased, the stream discharge rose to 6 
quarts per minute and this rate has prevailed with occasional fluctuations due 
to rains. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by MEINzER, SPENCER, HeckmMErR, MisEr, and W. N. Wuire. 

M. I. Goupman: Some brologic effects of the ‘drought an tributaries of Chesa- 
peake Bay.—The paper was based on a report by Truitt and Algire, to the 
State Conservation Department of Maryland, on an unusual mortality of 
fishes in the Severn and Magothy Rivers. This report was very generously 
placed at the disposal of the speaker by Doctor Truitt. 

The object of the paper was to bring out the fact that events like the 
drought of 1930 which, from the geological point of view, may be regarded 
as inherent factors in an environment rather than as catastrophic events, may 
account for sudden high mortalities of organisms such as might result in 
stratification surfaces covered with the remains of fishes or other organisms. 
The drought resulted in an upstream shift of salinity in Chesapeake Bay and 
its tributaries which, in the Susquehanna River amounted to about 30 miles, 
in the Potomac to about 16 miles. In small tributaries with small watersheds 
like the Severn and Magothy rivers the effect was even more pronounced. 
The mortality occurred between the 5th and 19th of November, 1930. The 
investigation by Truitt and Algire showed an increase of the salinity of these 
waters, (as indicated by the specific gravity) to about eight times normal, 
equivalent to a salinity about half that of normal sea water. Turbidity, pH, 
and other chemical and physical factors appeared normal. Seine hauls in 
areas in which fresh water fishes ordinarily abounded yielded only marine 
fishes which appeared perfectly healthy. ‘The fishes affected were all fresh 
water forms. Parasitic marine isopods were found attached to the gills of 
most of the dead or dying fishes. There appears to be little doubt that, 
directly or indirectly, abnormal salinity, resulting from the drought, was 
responsible for the death of the fishes. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Heckmer, Truitt, Hopkins, and THOMPSON. 


472ND MEETING 


The 472nd meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on January 28, 1931, 
President Mxtnzer presiding. 

Informal communications: W. H. BrapLey compared certain fine-grained 
non-calcareous laminated marine sediments with recent laminated sediments 
of lacustrine origin, followed Rubey in interpreting the laminations in the 
marine sediments as probably varves resulting from a maximum summer pulse 
in the production of planktonic organisms, and pointed out that according to 


APRIL 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 181 


this interpretation the laminations form a basis for estimating rates of sedi- 
mentation and intervals of geologic time. 

M. I. GotpMaAN called attention to two outstanding sets of joints which 
control the course of the Potomac River near Great Falls, this effect of jointing 
being disclosed by a stereo-photograph compiled from airplane views. 

Program: C. 8. Ross: The Valles Mountain volcanic crater, New Mexico. 

Discussed by Cross and MmrtIE. 

ApoupH Knorr: The Engels copper district, California. 

Discussed by SHorT, LOUGHLIN, R. C. WELLS, and GREIG. 


473RD MEETING 


The 473rd meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on February 11, 1931, 
President MrInzeEr presiding. 

Informal communications: W.C. ALDEN described large ripple marks occur- 
ring on the upstream end of a silt bar at the confluence of the Flathead River 
and one channel of the Stillwater River, 3 miles southeast of Kalispell, Mon- 
tana. These marks were 5 to 15 feet from crest to crest by 8 to 12 inches 
deep, and were likened to forms described by Kindle as current ripples or 
mammoth ripples. 

Discussed by MATTHES. 

G. R. MansrFretp showed a polished specimen of Tempskya knowltont, a 
fern, from the Wayan formation of Cretaceous age in the Lanes Creek quad- 
rangle, southeastern Idaho. The common fossil form consists of hundreds 
of stems entwined in a dense root net, the whole resembling fossilized wood. 

Discussed by Hzss. 

Program: F.C. Kracexk: Recent studies of alkali silicate systems. 

Discussed by GILLULY. 

P. J. SHENON: The Flathead mine, Montana, an unusual silver deposit.— 
The Flathead mine is located 10 miles west of Flathead lake in Flathead 
County, Montana. It has produced over a million ounces of silver and con- 
siderable lead, and development work indicates even a greater future produc- 
tion. The region is underlain principally by flat lying Belt rocks of Algonkian 
age. Ten isolated patches of voleanic rocks, principally latite and trachyte 
tuffs and flows, rest upon the Belt rocks and two small exposures apparently 
represent outcrops of intrusive rocks. The latter are porphyrytic latites and 
enclose the ore at the mine. The most unusual feature of the intrusive rock 
is the size of its orthoclase phenocrysts, many of which are more than three 
inches long. In the ore many of the feldspar phenocrysts have been removed 
and are now represented by empty casts or casts which are partly filled with 
barite, silica, and in lesser amounts, a clay mineral and limonite. The ore 
occurs as an irregular body, 150 feet wide by 400 feet in length at its greatest 
dimensions. On the upper levels the ore body is roughly elliptical in hori- 
zontal plane. Vertical cross-sections show that the ore body somewhat 
resembles a molar tooth with one or more roots pointing downward. Inclu- 
sions of Belt rocks and irregular patches of brown nontronite mud occur 
through the ore. 

The hypogene ore minerals include galena and a complex sulphide of silver, 
antimony, and bismuth, as well as pyrite and a little enargite. Argentite, 
covellite, and marcasite occur as supergene sulphides. Barite, quartz, clay, 
and alunite constitute the principal gangue minerals. More than one period 
of mineralization is evident. Quartz and pyrite first formed in the wall rock. 
Fractures were then developed which were healed principally by fine grained 
quartz, barite, and sulphides, in order of deposition. The evidence shows 


182. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 8 


that the deposit formed at a depth of less than 400 feet and probably nearer 
200 feet below the land surface and that the outline of the cellular ore approxi- 
mates the outline of the hypogene mineralization. Secondary enrichment 
has been a very important process in the formation of the commercial ore. 
(Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by TuNELL, Hewert, LOUGHLIN, and NoLaAN. 

K. O. Utricu: Highlights of the past season’s work in early Paleozoic strati- 
graphy. 

C. H. Danz, ArtHur M. Pipmr, Secretaries 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


The twelfth annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union and of its 
Sections will be held April 30 and May 1, 1931 at the headquarters of the 
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C. A seventh Section, 
known as the Section of Hydrology, has been formed in the past year and will 
hold its first meeting under the chairmanship of O. E. Mrernzmr. 


The American Geographical Society, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 
Norwegian Geophysical Institution, Wood’s Hole Oceanographic Institution 
and the Cleveland Museum of Natural History are cooperating in the prep- 
arations for scientific work to be undertaken by the Wilkins-Ellsworth 
Trans-Arctic Submarine Expedition. 


Dr. J. Barres, Professor of Physics at the Forstlicher Hochschule of 
Eberswalde, Germany, who has been appointed a research associate of the 
Carnegie Institution of Washington for one year, will arrive in Washington, 
April 8. Dr. Barress will undertake a study in the Department of Terres- 
trial Magnetism of the interpretation of terrestrial-magnetic and electric 
data and laboratory methods. 


S. L. Seaton, former observer and radio operator on the CARNEGIE, 
expects to leave during the summer for the Huancayo Magnetic Observatory, 
Peru, to install equipment for an experimental radio station for which an 
appropriation has now been made by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. 


Obituary 


Capt. Henry Martyn Paut, U.S.N., retired, died on Sunday, March 15, 
following a long illness. Born at Dedham, Mass., in 1851, he graduated from 
Dartmouth College in 1873 and from Thayer School of Civil Engineering in 
1875. He served as assistant astronomer at the Naval Observatory from 
1875 to 1880 and again from 1883 to 1899. In the interim he was professor of 
astronomy in the Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan. It is believed that he 
was the first to introduce the study of astronomy into a Japanese University. 
In 1899 he was assigned to duty in the Bureau of Yards and Docks and in 1905 
he was ordered to the Naval Academy, where he taught mathematics until 
shortly before his retirement in 1913. 

Capt. Pauu was a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement 
of Science and a member of the Washington Academy of Sciences and of the 
Philosophical Society of Washington. 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 21 MAY 4, 1931 No. 9 


PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.—The influence of pressure on the solubil- 
ity of sodium chloride in water. A new method for the measurement 
of the solubilities of electrolytes under pressure. L. H. ApAms 
and R. E. Hatt, ‘aici Laboratory, Carnegie Institution 
of Washington. 


In this paper is described a method for the determination of the sol- 
ubility of a salt or other electrolyte under pressure. ‘The method in- 
volves (1) a means for measuring the concentration of a solution in a 
place inaccessible to direct observation, as in a pressure apparatus, 
without disturbing the equilibrium between solid and liquid, and (2) 
a simple arrangement for obtaining saturation in a vessel that can not 
be shaken and is not provided with a mechanical stirrer. The con- 
centration is determined by measuring with sufficient precision the 
electrical resistance of the solution, and saturation is attained by using 
a cell in which convection-currents readily produce complete equilib- 
rium between solid and liquid. This method has been applied to the 
study of the system, NaCl-H;O, under pressure, and some measure- 
ments on the effect of pressure on the solubility of sodium chloride 
have been made. 

Apparatus. The conductivity cell, alee in Fig. 1, was constructed 
of Kavalier glass with platinum electrodes sealed dhnoueh the sides of the 
narrow part of the cell, which was about 5 mm. inside diameter and about 
4 em. between electrodes. In order to obtain with saturated salt solu- 
tions a resistance that was not inconveniently low, especially in a cell 
small enough to go into the pressure apparatus, small ring-shaped elec- 
trodes were used. These were made by bending platinum wire of 0.4 
mm. diameter into circular loops about 3 mm. outside diameter and 
then closing the loop by soldering with gold. The electrodes were 


1 Received March 25, 1931. 
183 


184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 9 


coated with platinum black in accordance with the usual procedure? 
for conductivity measurements. Outside the cell the platinum wires 
were fused on to gold wires in order to have the resistance of the leads as 
low as possible. Near the top and at the bottom of the cell, as shown 
in the diagram, were placed several crystals of the salt 
under investigation, the remainder of the space inside 
the cell, up to within 1.5 cm. of the top, being filled 
with saturated solution. The enlarged portion at the 
lower end of the cell was fitted with a ground joint to 
facilitate the placing of crystals at the bottom. It 
was expected that convection currents in the cell would 
operate in such a way as to keep the solution always 
saturated. Thus, if at any time the concentration 
were less than the equilibrium value, solid would tend 
to dissolve, and the more concentrated, denser, solu- 
tion would sink toward the bottom of the cell. This 
action would continue until the solution became com- 
pletely saturated. On the other hand, if for any 
reason the solution became supersaturated, salt would 
crystallize out, and the less concentrated, lighter, 
solution produced at the bottom of the cell would 
rise toward the top, until as before equilibrium was 
attained. Furthermore, it was expected that the at- 
tainment of equilibrium in a cell of the size and shape 
shown in the diagram would be sufficiently rapid to 
make the method a convenient one. How well this 
supposition was justified will be evident from some 
preliminary experiments, which will be described be- 
low. 7 ! 
In order to use the electrical conductivity for deter- 
mining the solubility of an electrolyte’ at various pres- 
= sures it is necessary to know the conductivity over a 
Fig. 1—Con- range of concentrations in the vicinity of saturation 
ductivity cell for 5 Ses 
aieiming: satu: and also over the range of pressures at which it is 


rated solution 


under pressure, 2 KoHLRAUSCH and Housporn. Das Leitverm6égen der Elektro- 
(about natural lyte, p. 9 (Leipzig, 1898). 
size). 3 The application of conductivity to the analysis of solutions 


has been discussed in detail by KoHLRauscH and HOLBORN (op. 
cit.). Conductivity methods have been used to determine the progress of chemical 
reactions at atmospheric pressure by WALKER and Kay (J. Chem. Soc. 71: 489. 1889) 
and by WaLKER (Proc. Roy. Soc. 78 A: 157. 1908), and at higher pressures by CoHEN 
and Kaiser (Zeit. phys. Chem. 89: 338. 1915). 


MAY 4, 1931 ADAMS AND HALL: SOLUBILITY OF SODIUM CHLORIDE 185. 


desired to work. Some measurements have already been made by 
previous investigators on the effect of pressure on the conductivity 
of solutions of various salts including sodium chloride, but the pres-— 
sure-range was not large enough, and sufficient attention was not given 
to the nearly saturated solutions. Even at atmospheric pressure, 
although the conductivity of dilute solutions has been thoroughly in- 
vestigated, the available data for concentrated solutions are so meager 
that they are practically valueless for measuring concentrations. 

Additional measurements were therefore required. The detailed 
results of the investigation on the conductivity of sodium chloride solu- 
tions under pressures up to 4000 bars (metric atmospheres) and the 
complete description of the apparatus will be published in another 
paper. The conductivity-cell, surrounded by sulphur-free oil, was 
subjected to pressure in a steel bomb, which was placed in a thermostat, 
with kerosene as the liquid. The temperature was maintained at 30°, 
because of the inconvenience of running the thermostat at a lower 
temperature during the summer months. The maximum variation in 
temperature of the thermostat was 1 or 2 thousandths of a degree. 
Pressure was generated by means of a hand-pump and pressure-in- 
tensifier, and was measured with a resistance-gauge. The cell was 
connected to insulated leads at the top of the bomb and thence to a 
slide-wire bridge, which was supplied with alternating current at 1000 
cycles per second. A telephone receiver served to determine the bal- 
ance-point of the bridge. On account of the tendency to heating- 
effects in the type of cell that was used, the maximum current that 
could safely be passed through the cell was about 0.5 milliampere. 
When the limiting current is so small, sufficient sensitivity can not 
be obtained with the telephone alone; but by connecting a two-stage 
electron-tube amplifier between the bridge and the telephone* there 
is no difficulty in making the bridge-setting to within one-tenth of a 
division, which corresponds to a precision of 1 part in 50,000 in the 
resistance-measurement. This precision is quite satisfactory for elec- 
trolytic solutions, although, of course, much greater refinement is 
possible in the measurement of metallic resistances, with which direct 
current can be used. 

Test of saturation in the convection-cell. Prior to the determination 
of solubility under pressure, a preliminary experiment was made to 
find out how well saturation would take place in the chosen type of cell. 
For this purpose it was sufficient to alter the conditions so that the 
solubility of a particular salt would be increased or decreased and to 


4 Hatuand Apams. Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. 41: 1515-1525. 1919. 


186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 9 


observe the course of the conductivity with time. The simplest way 
to alter the solubility is by changing the temperature, and for conveni- 
ence a Salt with a large temperature-coefficient of solubility should be 
chosen. Accordingly the saturation-test was conducted as follows: 
The cell was nearly filled with saturated CuSO, solution, crystals of 
the salt being at the top and bottom, as shown in Fig. 1. It was then 
placed in the bomb just as it was for the measurements under pressure, — 
and the thermostat adjusted to a temperature around 30°. After 
equilibrium was attained, as shown by the resistance of the cell 
reaching a constant value, the temperature was changed somewhat 
(usually one-half to one degree) and the resistance of the cell again 
measured at suitable intervals of time. This procedure was repeated 
at several temperatures so that equilibrium would be approached from 
both above and below and at two different temperatures. The first 
and large effect observed after each change of temperature was that 
due to the temperature-coefficient of resistance, but since the tempera- 
ture had probably become quite uniform as well as constant in one- 
half hour or less, the subsequent drift in resistance was due to the 
change in concentration of the solution. Apparently this change takes 
place approximately according to a simple exponential relation with 
respect to time, so that saturation, following a rise in temperature, 
proceeds about half way to equilibrium in 2 hours, and is sensibly 
complete in 24 hours. On the other hand, after a drop in temperature 
about 5 hours is required for the change in concentration to reach one- 
half the final amount, and about 2 days to be completed. . This differ- 
ence in behavior in the two cases is probably connected with the way 
in which equilibrium is attained within the convection-cell. When the 
solution is unsaturated, as for example immediately after a rise in 
temperature, the solution proceeds to saturate itself by dissolving 
salt at the top, but, when it is supersaturated, salt crystallizes out at 
the lower end. Probably the rate at which salt will dissolve at the 
top is considerably greater than that at which it will crystallize at 
the bottom. 

In Table I are summarized the results of the preliminary test of the 
convection-cell. The first column gives the equilibrium temperature; 
the second, the change in temperature immediately preceding the 
maintenance of constant temperature; and the third, the final value for 
the resistance. Each of the 8 series of measurements was continued 
for 2 to 8 days in order to make sure that the resistance had become 
constant. The average of the 4 equilibrium values at 30.05° is 247.700 
ohms, and of the 4 at 30.95° is 242.240. From the fourth column of 


MAY 4, 1931 ADAMS AND HALL: SOLUBILITY OF SODIUM CHLORIDE 187 


Table I, which shows the deviation in resistance from the correspond- 
ing average, it is evident that equilibrium was attained to a very satis- 
factory extent. The average deviation (without regard to sign) is 
0.010 ohm, and the uncertainty in the equilibrium value is therefore 
only about twice the uncertainty in the resistance measurements them- 
selves. 

It is important to determine what this degree of precision means in 
terms of the concentration of salt in the solution. From conductivity 
data’ it may be calculated that at 30° with a saturated solution of 
CuSO, (19.6 per cent) a decrease in salt content of 1 per cent—1.e., 
from 19.6 to 18.6 per cent—will cause a fractional increase in resistiv- 
ity of 0.0238, which with a cell of 240 ohms resistance gives 5.5 ohms 
change for 1 per cent change in concentration. From this it follows 
that an uncertainty of 0.010 ohm in resistance corresponds to 0.002 


TABLE I.—SummMary oF RESULTS OF SATURATION TEST 


Temperature Previous temperature Resistance at equil. Deviation of resist. 
GCs) change (ohms) from av. 
30.05 —0.90 247 .683 —0.017 
ae +0.49 247.711 7 LE 
- —0.90 247 .695 — 5 
oi +0.35 247 .710 + 10 
30.95 —0.60 242 . 235 — 5 
i +0.90 242 .230 — 10 
ES +0.90 242.260 + 20 
o —0.57 242 .236 _ 4 


per cent CuSO,, and that on the average the cell came to within 0.002 
per cent of the equilibrium concentration of the salt. Even with the 
maximum discrepancy (0.020 ohm) the uncertainty is only twice as 
large. 

These results showed quite definitely that it was feasible to obtain 
complete equilibrium between salt and solution in the convection-cell, 
and they indicated that the cell could be used with confidence in de- 
termining the solubility of a salt under pressure, because, in whatever 


5 KOHLRAUSCH and HOLBORN. op. cit., p. 151. 

6 It is interesting to note the relative effects of increased temperature and increased 
concentration on the resistance of a cell containing a saturated solution. At 30° an 
increase in temperature of 1° increases the solubility of CuSO, 0.25 per cent; the cell 
resistance would therefore decrease 0.25 x 5.5 or 1.4 ohm due to the solubility change. 
Since the temperature coefficient of the resistivity of a 19.6 per cent CuSO, solution at 
30° is —0.019, the decrease in resistance due to temperature change alone is 0.019 x 240 
or 4.6 ohms, which is over three times the change due to increased solubility. This 
illustrates the importance of maintaining the temperature constant to about 0.001°. 


188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 9 


way the solubility were altered, by pressure as well as by changes in 
temperature, the cell would maintain saturated solution between the 
electrodes. 

Experimental results with NaCl under pressure. As mentioned above, 
the first step was to determine the effect of pressure on the conductiv- 
ity of sodium chloride solutions at constant composition. An exten- 
Sive series of measurements at pressures up to 4000 bars, at various 
concentrations, and at a temperature of 30°, was made with the same 
cell as was used in the solubility experiments, except, of course, that 
no solid salt was placed in the cell. The method and results for the 
effect of pressure on conductivity will be published in detail elsewhere. 


TABLE II.—Resutts For THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON THE SOLUBILITY OF 
NaCl at 29.93° 


Pressure He mosey of Bene ae —AR LNG yucroase Group Averages 
in bars soln. satd. | “soln. under | (= Ry — Rs) AC Sen? 
under pressure Rae per cent P AC 
1 58.19 (58 . 18.) (—0.004) 0.41 0.00 1 0.00 
293 58 .40 58 .49 0.09 .36 .26 
307 58 .42 58.51 .09 .36 .26 oe 28 
412 58 .52 58 .63 11 .30 32 412 .o2 
812 59 .03 59.17 14 .28 ol 
877 59.13 59.27 14 27 93 a ve 
1258 59.76 59.90 14 21 .68 
1266 59.77 59.91 14 21 .68 
1218 59.70 59.83 13 22 .60 ey wD 
1293 59.82 59.96 14 21 .68 
1437 60.08 60.22 14 .19 15 
1429 60.07 60.21 14 19 15 1428 15 
1419 60.05 60.19 14 19 15 
1911 61.05 61.18 13 13 1.01 1911 1.01 
1 58.187 aes ea Be ve 
3649 65.77 65.58 —.19 = — 


3637 65.75 65.55 — .20 as a 


Next, the cell was filled with a saturated solution of NaCl, crystals 
of NaCl placed at the top and bottom, and the cell put in position in 
the bomb which was then supported in the thermostat at (or near) 30°. 
Pressure was then applied and held constant while readings of the cell 
resistance were made at suitable intervals of time until equilibrium 
was attained, as shown by resistance becoming constant, after which 
the pressure was increased and the same procedure followed. Usually, 
less than 24 hours was required for the attainment of equilibrium; 
the time required obviously depends on the preceding increment of 
pressure, which ordinarily was not large. The results are presented in 
Table II, the second column of which shows the equilibrium resistance, 


MAY 4, 1931 ADAMS AND HALL: SOLUBILITY OF SODIUM CHLORIDE 189 


R, (in ohms), of the solution when saturated at the pressures indicated 
in Column 1. By interpolation from the results of the previous in- 
vestigation on the conductivity of NaCl solution under pressure, the 
resistance, R,, of a 26.48 per cent solution in the same cell at the various 
pressures was determined, as shown by the values in the third column. 
The difference, AR, is the change in resistance caused by the change in 
solubility of NaCl at the given pressure. 

These changes of resistance were evaluated in terms of concentra- 
tion by using the values of the resistance-concentration gradient at the 
various pressures, as calculated from the results of the preceding in- 
vestigation. For this purpose the resistances at three concentrations 
were determined at even values of pressure by interpolation. These 
values are shown in Table III and Fig. 2. For each pressure the 
values of R and C (concentration in weight per cent) were fitted to an 


TABLE III.—Tue Errect or PRESSURE ON THE RESISTANCE OF CONCENTRATED 
SoututTions oF NaCl at 29.93° 


Resistance, R, of a cell with solution of concentration C 


Pressure in bars (wt. per cent) SE trom eqn. 

(at C = 26.48) 
C = 20.26 Ci— 25.02 C = 26.48 

1 64.31 59.85 58.19 —0.41 

1000 64.54 60.70 59.46 —0.25 
2000 65.74 62.29 61.38 —0.11, 

3000 67 .66 64.43 63.77 0.00 
4000 70.16 67.08 66.60 Qi@?) 


equation, and the resistance-concentration gradient, dR /dC, was then 
determined by differentiating the equation. This operation involved 
much greater difficulties than had been anticipated, principally be- 
cause R as a function of C departs so much from linearity, especially 
at high pressures, that it is not easy to decide what type of equation to 
use. Measurements at a larger number of concentrations in the re- 
gion near saturation should have been made, but this fact was not 
fully appreciated until after the apparatus had been dismantled. 
The last column of Table III shows the values of dR /dC (at saturation) 
obtained by fitting the results to the parabolic equation 
| R=a+0C + @C 

in which a, b, and c are constants. It may be seen that the equation 
demands that RF pass through a minimum and that at the higher 
pressures this minimum occurs at a concentration less than saturated. 
Hence, for pressures above 3000 bars, and in concentrated solutions, 
the resistance may actually increase with increasing concentration of 


190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 9 


NaCl. This seemed rather surprising until it was noted that even at 
atmospheric pressure the resistivity of many salt solutions (e.g. 
CaCl.) passes through a minimum at high concentrations. 

Several other types of equation also were tried. The hyperbola, 
KR =aC+6+4c/C, gave results not very different from those obtained 
with the parabola, and, like it, gives a minimum in RF at a finite con- 
centration. But it seems probable that the simple parabola gives the 


RESISTANCE IN OHMS 


25 
WEIGHT BERCEA NaC/ 


Fig. 2.—Resistance of the cell as a function of concentration at various pressures. 
At high pressures and in nearly saturated solutions the resistance increases with concen- 
tration. 


best representation of the data, and, since it is somewhat more con- 
venient to use, this type of equation was adopted. Two other three- 
constant equations, the hyperbola, RC = a + bC + cR, and the 
exponential, R = a + be “°°, were tried and rejected when it was real- 
ized that this would require the values of R to be asymptotic to the C 
axis, and that this would be an arbitrary and unreasonable restraint. 

The resistance-concentration gradients shown in the last column of 
Table III were plotted against pressure, and the values of this gradient 


MAY 4, 1931 ADAMS AND HALL: SOLUBILITY OF SODIUM CHLORIDE 191 


for the various pressures, as read from the graph, are given in the fifth 
column of Table II. With sufficient accuracy for the present purpose 
the gradient at a given pressure can be considered constant through- 
out the small range of concentrations encountered with NaCl solu- 
tions under pressure. Therefore, from the values of AR and AR/AC 
the change of solubility is readily obtained by simple division. 

The solubility of NaCl in water at 30.00° and atmospheric pressure 
was measured by shaking a mixture of solution and salt in a mechani- 
cal shaker operating within a thermostat, withdrawing a sample of 
the saturated solution and analyzing it by evaporation and careful 
drying. ‘The average of 4 determinations, in which equilibrium was 
approached in both directions, was 26.470 per cent, the maximum de- 
viation from the average being 0.007 and the average deviation being 
0.004. Hence, the solubility will be taken as 26.47 per cent, and since 
the change for 1° temperature increase is only 0.01, 26.47 is the solu- 
bility also at 29.93°. The most concentrated solution used in the 
measurements on the pressure-coefficient of resistivity was, therefore, 
very slighty supersaturated (by 0.01 per cent). Moreover, its con- 
centration, 26.48 per cent, was the reference point for the values of 
Ak. Therefore, in order to determine the change of solubility from 
the values of AR in Table II, it is necessary to divide by AR/AC and 
to add 0.01. The results of this operation are given in Column 6 and 
are the respective amounts by which the stated pressure has increased 
the solubility above the initial 26.47 per cent. 

In the last two columns of Table II the values of P and AC for those 
pressures which are nearly the same have been averaged together to 
give a single pair of values for each group. These averages are plotted 
in Fig. 3, which shows graphically the effect of pressure on the solu- 
bility of NaCl in water at 30°. It may be observed that although a 
resistance measurement of the saturated solution was made at 3600 
bars this result was not evaluated in terms of solubility-change. This 
was because of the uncertainty connected with the value of the resist- 
ance-concentration gradient (OR /dC)>p for the nearly saturated solu- 
tions at the higher pressures. With increasing pressure the gradient 
decreases rapidly and changes sign at about 3000 bars. This unex- 
pected circumstance makes it difficult to obtain an entirely satisfactory 
set of values of (0R/0C)p from the present data. Measurements of 
f& should have been made at much smaller intervals at C close to the | 
saturation-concentration, but the full importance of this was not appre- 
ciated until after the apparatus had been dismantled. It is interest- 
ing to note, however, that the value of AR, 0.20, at 3600 bars, as given 


192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 9 


in Table II, is consistent with other measurements. The solubility 
change AC’ at 3600 bars is known to be 1.2 (see below). Hence 
AR/AC is 0.16, which is not inconsistent with the values of this coeffi- 
cient as determined directly from the conductivity measurements and 
as shown in the last column of Table III. 

The system NaCl-H,.O turns out to be a peculiarly unfavorable 
system by which to try out the method here described for determining 
the change of solubility under pressure. This is on account of the 


Oo 
@ 


INCREASE IN SOLUBILITY, AC 
{e) 
o 


1°) 
‘S 


0.2 


500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 
PRESSURE IN BARS 


Fig. 3.—The change of solubility of NaCl with pressure. Some results of other in- 
vestigators are included for comparison. 


above-mentioned inversion in (0R/0C)p and also on account of the 
small change in solubility. Nevertheless, the results with this system 
are believed to be useful, and they quite justify the value and con- 
venience of the method. 

Comparison with previous determinations. In Fig. 3 there are also 
plotted. the results obtained by Cohen et al.? and by Sill. Cohen 


7 Conen and Stnnicz. Zeit. phys. Chem. 67: 432. 1909; Conn, Inouye, and Ev- 
WEN. Jbid.75: 257. 1911. 
8 Sinu. Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. 38: 2632. 1916. 


MAY 4, 1931 ADAMS AND HALL: SOLUBILITY OF SODIUM CHLORIDE 193 


and his collaborators used an electromagnetic stirrer within the pres- 
sure bomb. After equilibrium beween solid and solution had been 
attained, the bomb was quickly opened and a sample of the solution 
withdrawn for analysis. Sill, on the other hand, had an arrangement 
for shaking the bomb, which was connected to the remainder of the 
pressure-apparatus by means of a piece of flexible copper tubing. A 
sample of the saturated solution was obtained by opening a valve while 
the contents of the bomb were still under pressure. The methods and 
results of other earlier investigators? on solubility under pressure 
are of little value for comparison here, because of an inadequate 
pressure-range, and insufficient precision in the measurements. The 
curve in Fig. 3 represents the unpublished determinations (by one 
of the present authors) of the change in solubility of NaCl under 
pressure at 25° by an indirect thermodynamic method. ‘This indirect 
method involves the use of the compressibility and certain other prop- 
erties of NaCl solutions and solid NaCl, and will be described fully 
in a forthcoming paper. 

The various results shown in Fig. 3 are not strictly comparable, 
since the present results were obtained at 29.93°, those of Cohen et al. 
at 24.05°, and those of Sill at 25.0°. On the other hand, there are good 
reasons for believing that in this system a few degrees change in tem- 
perature will not have much effect on the increase in solubility caused 
by a given increment of pressure. Probably the correspondence of 
the three sets of results would not be altered noticeably by correcting 
them to the same temperature. 

From the diagram it may be seen that on the whole the agreement 
between the various determinations is satisfactory. The average dis- 
crepancy of the results by the present method is probably not as much 
as 0.05 gram of NaCl per 100 grams of solution. Since the principal 
uncertainty is in the resistance-concentration gradient, more complete 
measurements on the electrical conductivity of nearly saturated solu- 
tions would make worth while the recording of one more digit due to 
change of solubility, and would therefore considerably increase the 
accuracy of the results. Furthermore, with a number of other elec- 
trolytes it should be possible to obtain easily an accuracy of better 
than 0.005 gram per 100 grams of solution. 

Summary. A method has been developed for determining the effect 
of pressure on the solubility of salts and other substances without the 

°e.g., Favre. Compt. rend. 51: 827, 1027. 1860; Mortirr. Ann. Phys. 117: 
386. 1862; Sorpy. Proc. Roy. Soc., 12: 538. 1863, Phil. Mag. 27: 145. 1864; 


Brown. Ann. Phys. 30: 250. 1887. Zeit. phys. Chem. 1: 258. 1887; von STACHEL- 
BERG. Zeit. phys. Chem. 20: 337. 1896. 


194 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 9 


use of a mechanical stirrer or shaking device. Essentially the method 
consists in measuring the electrical resistivity of the saturated solution 
in a special type of conductivity-cell in which a small amount of the 
solid is placed at the top and at the bottom and in which saturation 
takes place merely by convection. 

Preliminary experiments at atmospheric pressure having shown that 
with solubility-changes induced by changes of temperature, equilib- 
rium in the cell was attained within a reasonable time, measurements 
at pressures up to about 4000 bars (metric atmospheres) were made on 
the system, NaCl-H.O, at 30°. The choice of this system turned out 
not to be a very happy one, because the resistance-concentration 
gradient (at constant pressure) in the saturated solution decreases 
rapidly with pressure and changes sign at 3000 bars; but although the 
data for the highest pressures could not be completely evaluated, the 
final results for the solubility-change agree satisfactorily with previous 
determinations by other means, and indicate that the present method is 
convenient and accurate. 


BOTANY.—The eastern  short-stemmed leatherflowers.1. EpaGar T. 
Wuerry, University of Pennsylvania. 


In current botanical manuals two species of short-stemmed broad- 
leaved leatherflowers are listed as present in the eastern United States, 
Clematis ochroleuca Aiton and C’. ovata Pursh. Field studies of this 
group of plants in the Appalachian shale-barrens? and elsewhere have 
indicated that their relationships and ranges have been to some ex- 
tent misinterpreted, as the data here recorded may serve to show. 

The principal diagnostic features of the plants in question are pre- 
sented in the accompanying key. Certain characters often regarded 
as significant have proved to be inconstant and variable, and have ac-. 
cordingly been omitted from consideration. For instance, leaf-termina- 
tions range from obtusish to acutish or even acuminate from one 
branch to another on a single plant. Again, the violet tinge on the 
outside of the sepals may be intense on one individual and almost 
lacking on another growing beside it, with intermediates elsewhere in 
the vicinity. Finally, dimensions of sepals and of achenes vary by 
25% within any large clump, depending on the degree of maturity 
attained by the particular branch on which they are borne. 

1 Contribution from the Botanical Laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania. 


Received March 2, 1931. 
2 This JOURNAL 20: 46. 1930. 


may 4, 1931 WHERRY: LEATHERFLOWERS 195 


KEY TO THE EASTERN SHORT-STEMMED LEATHERFLOWERS (Clematis spp.) 


Plant sparingly branched and small leaves relatively few; head of fruit tend- 
ing to be spherical, about 6 cm. in diameter; achenes nearly symmetrical. 
Under side of leaves glabrate to moderately pubescent; hairs of achene- 
appendages deep, or exceptionally pale, yellow; range chiefly at 
altitudes below 1000 feet, mostly in Piedmont....C. ochroleuca ovata 
Under side of leaves moderately to densely pubescent; hairs of achene- 
appendages pale, or exceptionally deep, yellow; range chiefly at alti- 

tudes above 1000 feet, mostly in Blue Ridge. ...C. ochroleuca sericea 

Plant copiously branched and small leaves relatively numerous; leaves glab- 


rate. 
Head of fruit nearly spherical, about 5 cm. in diameter; achenes fairly 
symmetrical, their appendage-hairs brown.............. C. viticaulis 


Head of fruit spheroidal, about 4 cm. high and 6 em. broad; achenes 
rather unsymmetrical, their appendage-hairs whitish....C. albicoma 


Clematis ochroleuca Aiton.—This plant varies in a number of respects from 
one clump to another, but the only features in which such variation shows 
any recognizable geographical relationships are those enumerated in the key. 
Two extreme variants with respect to degree of leaf-pubescence have received 
specific names, but in view of the complete gradation between them only 
varietal distinction seems justified. It is accordingly here proposed to divide 
this species into two varieties, as follows: 


Clematis ochroleuca ovata (Pursh) Wherry, status novus? 


C. ovata Pursh, not of current manuals 
C. integrifolia a ochroleuca Kuntze. 

The specimen on which Pursh based his specific name is preserved in the 
Sherard Herbarium at Oxford University, having been collected by Catesby 
and labelled by him with a citation from Plukenet, followed by the words 
“negroes head.”’ The latter has been regarded as a locality,‘ but as Catesby 
did not in general add place-names to his labels, and as ‘‘nigger-head’’— 
in allusion to the globular mass of kinky plumes—is the term universally 
applied to the leatherflowers by laymen in the south, it is believed to repre- 
sent a common name instead. 

In his work on the Natural History of Carolina, etce., Catesby did not men- 
tion this plant. Pursh® supposed it to have been obtained in South Carolina, 
Small* in that state or Georgia. It could equally well have come from Vir- 
ginia, which was also visited by Catesby, as shown by the following quotation:’ 

“Tn the Year 1714 I travelled from the lower Part of St. James’s River in 
Virgina to that Part of the Apalatchian Mountains where the Sources of that 


5 “Status novus’’ is believed to express the situation more accurately than the more 
frequently used ‘‘combinatio nova.’’ | 

* Britton, Mem. Torr. Bot. Club 2: 28, footnote. 1890; Small, Flora Southeastern 
WS. 439: 1903. 

’ Pursh, Flora Amer. Sept. 2: 736. 1814. 

6 Small, loc. cit. 

7 Catesby, Nat. Hist. Carolina, ete. 1: v. 1731. 


196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 9 


River rise, . . . At the Distance of twelve Miles from the Mountains we 
left the River, and directed our Course to the nearest of them.”’ 

The specimen in question was examined by Asa Gray, who stated® that it 
“appears to be C. ochroleuca, Ait.” It was later compared by Messrs. Vines 
and Druce with material from a West Virginia shale-barren sent to England 
for the purpose by Dr. N. L. Britton,? and was concluded by them to be iden- 
tical with this. Their interpretation has been adopted in current manuals, 
but as there is no evidence that Catesby ever reached the shale-barren region, 
its reconsideration seemed desirable. Accordingly, at my suggestion, Dr, 
and Mrs. Francis W. Pennell kindly obtained data on the specimen in Octo- 
ber 1930, and their description of it indicates clearly that it does not repre- 
sent the shale-barren plant after all. In lacking small-leaved branches, and 
having relatively large leaves and a spherical head of achenes with pale yellow 
appendage hairs, it corresponds exactly to the plant of the Virginia and 
Carolina Piedmont. 


The range of this variety is indicated by the following county records :° 


GEORGIA. 
DeKalb: Stone Mt., Ashe, not dated (N) 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 
Abbeville: Abbeville, Porcher, Aug. 1898 (U) 


NORTH CAROLINA. 


Alamance: Graham, Biltmore, May 26, 1902 (U) 
Caldwell: Lenoir, Biltmore, May 17, 1902 (U) 
Davie: Farmington, Biltmore, Aug. 27, 1895 (U) 
Guilford: High Point, Canby, June 1868 (N) 

_ Halifax: Weldon, Williamson, April 16, 1897 (N, P) 
Iredell: Statesville, Hyams, June 1898 (N, U) 
Polk: Lynn, Peattie, April 19, 1919 
Randolph:———., Ashe, June 1895 (N) 
Rowan: Salisbury, many collectors and dates (N, P, U). 


VIRGINIA. 


Arlington: many localities north of Alexandria (G, N, P, U) 

Dinwiddie: Petersburg, Twomey, not dated (P) 

Fairfax: many localities south of Alexandria (G, N, P, U) 

Fauquier: Buckland, Meredith, May 25, 1922 (P, U) 

Greensville: Belfield (now Emporia), Heller, June 19, 1893 (G, N, P, U) 
Henrico: Richmond, Burk, July 25, 1887 (P)¥ 

Spotsylvania: .Fredericksburg. Ward, May 3, 1872 (U). 


8 Gray, Curtis’s Bot. Mag. [3] 37: pl. 6594. 1881. 

® Britton, loc. cit. 

10 The following abbreviations are used for names of herbaria: G, Gray Herbarium; 
N, New York Botanical Garden; P, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; 
U, U.S. National Herbarium. 

1 This specimen is especially similar in leaf outline and pubescence to the type of C. 
evata; as Catesby would have started his 1714 trip in the vicinity of what is now Rich- 
mond, it is quite possible that they came from the same station. 


MAY 4, 1931 WHERRY: LEATHERFLOWERS 197 


PENNSYLVANIA. 
Chester: London Grove (old record; no specimens seen). 


NEW YORK. 


Queens: Brooklyn, Carry, May, 1841 (G, N) 
Richmond: many localities on Staten Island (G, N, P, U). 


Clematis ochroleuca sericea (Michaux) Wherry, status novus. 


C. sericea Michaux. 
C. ochroleuca 8 Torrey and Gray. 
C. integrifolia « ochroleuca 2 tomentosa Kuntze. 


Fig. 1. Clematis albicoma Wherry 
West of Covington, Virginia, June 10, 1930. 


This is the variety of C. ochroleuca which occurs at the higher elevations. 
It is characterized by its tendency toward tomentose pubescence on the leaves 
and pale hairs on the achene appendages. The most extreme material seen 
is that from Botetourt county, Virginia; the remaining records here cited 
are of specimens more or less transitional to the other variety. 

GEORGIA. 

Stevens: 5 miles west of Toccoa, Wherry, April 7, 1930 (P). 
NORTH CAROLINA. 

Forsyth: Salem, Schweznitz, not dated (P). 


198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 9 


VIRGINIA. 
Botetourt: Eagle Rock, Lewis, April 27, 1929 (P, Va. State Herbarium). 
Roanoke: Roanoke, E.G. Brittonand Vail, May 16-27, 1892 (G, N, P, U). 


Clematis viticaulis Steele!” 

This species is known thus far only from the type locality, where it occurs 
on shale slopes along the railroad west of the tunnel. The characters listed in 
the key amply differentiate it. 

VIRGINIA. 
Bath: West of Millboro, Steele, Sept. 3, 1906 (N, U); Wherry, June 11, 
1930 (P). 
Clematis albicoma Wherry, nomen novum 
C. ovata of current manuals, not Pursh 

So far as recorded this plant was first collected on Kates Mountain by Gus- 

tav Guttenberg in 1877. The way it came to be identified with Pursh’s C- 


ovata has been discussed above. It differs from that, however, in the respects 
enumerated in the key, and accordingly requires a new name, which is appro- 
priately derived from its most unique character, the whitish hairs on the 
achene-appendages. It occurs on various shale-barrens, and has been col- 
lected from the following: 


VIRGINIA. 


Allegheny: 14 miles west of Covington, Wherry, June 10, 1930 (N, P). 
Bath: Hot Springs, Hunnewell, May 11 to July 3, 1911 (G) | 
Southwest of Hot Springs, Wherry, June 10, 1930 (P). 


WEST VIRGINIA. 


Greenbrier: Kates Mountain, many collectors and dates (G, N, P, U). 
This is to be taken as the type locality of the species, and as type specimen 
should be designated: 


Guttenberg, July 31, 1877 (U). 


ZOOLOGY .—A report on some amphibians and reptiles from New York 
and New Jersey.1 Cuartes E. Burt,? Trinity University. 
(Communicated by Doris M. Cocuran.) : 


During the academic year of 1929-1930, while I was a member of the 
herpetological staff of the American Museum of Natural History, I 
took the opportunity to make occasional studies of the local amphib- 
ians and reptiles, both in New York and New Jersey; and, as a conse- 
quence of this, the following locality data and ecological annotations 
have been gathered. 

With future continuation of the phenomenal constructive activity 
at present in progress in the New York City region, it is evident that 


12 Steele, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 13: 364. 1911. 
1 Received March 13, 1981. 
2 Professor of Biology, Trinity University, Waxahachie, Texas. 


MAY 4, 1931 BURT: AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES 199 


great ecological pressure will be brought to bear on the local fauna 
and that progressive extermination or succession of animal communi- 
ties at many points must inevitably follow. In view of this, concise 
locality data on the local fauna, as opposed to generalized records, 
are especially needed. Noble (1927) in his “Distributional List of 
the Reptiles and Amphibians of the New York City Region,’ which 
presents only a preliminary statement of the general range of each 
of the local species, called attention to this need by writing that “Ex- 
act locality records of practically all our species are greatly desired. 
It is only when they are brought together that a clear picture of the 
distribution of our local species can be obtained.”’ ; 


SALAMANDERS 


Triturus viridescens viridescens (Rafinesque).—On April 12 a small red 
eft, the land form of the common newt, was obtained 4 miles north of Alpine, 
Bergen County, New Jersey, among soggy, dead leaves near a semi-stagnant 
streamlet, which was found to contain developing egg masses of the wood 
frog, Rana sylvatica. On April 19 another example was secured near this 
point in the water of a stagnant, leaf-filled roadside ditch; and on this same 
date two others were taken 3 miles north of Engelwood, Bergen County, New 
Jersey, in a swampy area where they were sheltered by crevices in the rocks. 

Plethodon cinereus (Green).—This salamander was commonly found in 
woods under stones and in or under rotting logs or other objects when suffi- 
cient moisture was available. It appears that in the spring there is often too 
much moisture for cznereus in the valleys, but too little on the more exposed 
hilltops. At this time the maximum abundance is found on the hillsides 
where moisture and protection are more nearly at the optimum. Later, if 
the summer brings drying, a migration into the valleys or a disappearance 
into subterranean retreats probably takes place. 

In New Jersey, both dark and red-backed phases were common. On 
April 7 and April 12 small series were secured 4 miles north of Alpine, Bergen 
County, from under stones and from rotted wood on a timbered hillside above 
a small stream, but on April 19 a total of 114 specimens was secured here 
within a period of about two hours. On the latter date cinereus was found to 
occur 3 miles north of Engelwood, Bergen County. On October 12-13 speci- 
mens were collected 1 mile north of Island Heights and at Lakehurst, in 
Ocean County. At the last locality individuals were found in damp situations 
under pieces of tin, cardboard and cloth, as well as under damp bark and 
leaves. 

In New York, a small individual secured at West Haverstraw, Rockland 
County, on April 12, was found to have a perfectly developed red-backed color 
pattern. It measured 15 mm. from snout to anus, and the tail was 10.5 
mm. long (total length, 25.5 mm.). In the laboratory this small creature 
showed a tendency to get a running start before making the characteristic 
jump of the species, demonstrating this method several times. The jumps 


200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 9 


were only about an inch in length. Additional New York representatives of 
this salamander were obtained 1 mile south of Harriman, Orange County; 12 
miles southwest of the St. George Ferry, Staten Island, Richmond County; 
2 miles north of Rockland Lake, Rockland County; and at Grassy Sprain 
Reservoir, Westchester County. The last place was visited on June 11 and 
specimens were found to be scarce because of a drying of the woods. 

Plethodon glutinosus (Green).—Several specimens of this form were removed 
from under flat rocks on a wooded hillside 4 miles north of Alpine, Bergen 
County, New Jersey, on April 12 and April 19. In this vicinity glutinosus 
apparently occupies the same general situations as the much more abundant 
cinereus. : 

Pseudotriton ruber ruber (Sonnini).—On April 7 the red salamander was 
found 4 miles north of Alpine, Bergen County, New Jersey; and on April 19 
it was taken 3 miles south of Piermont, in the same county. At both places 
the species was dislodged from under flat rocks near the edge of shallow, clear, 
cold bodies of running water, and in each instance individuals attempted to 
escape by diving downward toward crevices among the rocks at the bed of 
the stream. 

Eurycea bislineata bislineata (Green).—On April 7 two-lined salamanders 
were discovered under rocks at the border of a small stream 4 miles north of 
Alpine, Bergen County, New Jersey, and on April 19 others were found in a 
similar situation 3 miles south of Piermont (Bergen County, New Jersey). 
These attempted to escape by lodging under rocks in the water below. On 
April 12, examples were secured among soaked leaves in the pathway of seep- 
age from a spring near a small stream 1 mile south of Harriman, Orange 
County, New York, and on April 16 specimens were taken in a similar habi- 
tat at Grassy Sprain Reservoir, Westchester County, New York. 

Desmognathus fuscus fuscus (Rafinesque).—The dusky salamander was 
found in very moist situations under rocks or leaves near streams or pools 
and, upon being disturbed, it usually tried to escape by rushing toward the 
water. In Bergen County, New Jersey, the species was procured on April 7 
near a streamlet 4 miles north of Alpine, and on April 19, near a larger flow of | 
water 3 miles south of Piermont. The New York specimens of fuscus were 
all collected on April 12. They were found 1 mile north of Lake Tiorati, 
near the ‘‘Seven Lakes Drive,” and 1 mile south of Harriman, both localities 
being in Orange County; and under rocks near a small stream on the north 
slope of Dunderburg Mountain, in Rockland County. 


TOADS 


Bufo americanus Holbrook.—On April 19 this toad was taken 1 mile north 
of Leonia, Bergen County, New Jersey. On this cold evening many indi- 
viduals were calling from an extensive fresh-water swamp in the vicinity, but 
only a few clasping pairs were located. ‘The female of one such pair was lay- 
ing eggs and females transferred to the laboratory deposited eggs during the 
night. 

An examination of a series of these toads revealed some with distinct black 


MAY 4, 1931 BURT: AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES 201 


spots below and others without such markings; but most of them had at least 
a few faint black spots or slaty patches on the upper chest. 

Bufo fowlert Garman.—Bufo fowlerx GARMAN, Bull. Essex Inst., 16: 42. 
1884 (type locality, Massachusetts).—Bufo terrestris BURT and BURT 
(not of Bonnaterre), Amer. Mus. Novitates, no. 381, 1929, p. 2 (reports 
from Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas).—Through the courtesy of Mr. J. T. 
Nichols I had the opportunity to hear the call of Bufo fowler: at Garden City, 
Nassau County, New York, in June 1930. I recognized it at once as the same 
“‘goat-like”’ cry that I had heard in the Mississippi Valley the year before. 
The latter toads were doubtfully reported by Burt and Burt (1929) as Bufo 
terrestris on structural characters alone, but I am now convinced that they 
are B. fowleri—vocally at least! To this latter category the report of B. 
woodhousi Burt and Burt (1929) from 6 miles south of Vinton, Calcasieu 
County, Louisiana, which are based on young specimens, should probably 
also be placed. 


FRoGs 


Acris gryllus (Le Conte).—A cricket-frog was captured on October 13 at 
the edge of a shallow pond, 12 miles southwest of the St. George Ferry, 
Staten Island, Richmond County, New York. 

Hyla crucifera Wied.—Hyla crucifer WIED, Reise Nord-Amer., 1°: 275. 
1838 (type locality, Catonment Leavenworth, ‘‘Kansas’’).—Hyla crucifera 
MYERS, Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. for 1926, 36: 338. 1927—Spring-peepers 
were singing in Bergen County, New Jersey, on April 7, 19, and 28. They 
were abundant 1 mile north of Leonia, 1 mile north of Oradell, and at Harring- 
ton, particularly in flooded meadows where they clung to grass stems. Several 
specimens from the last locality had broken or incomplete crosses on their 
backs. In New York, crucifera was secured at the edge of a shallow pond 12 
miles southwest of the St. George Ferry, Staten Island, Richmond County. 

Hyla triseriata Wied.—Hyla triseriata WIED, Reise Nord-Amer., 1}: 
249. 1838 (type locality, Mt. Vernon, Ohio River, Indiana).—Pseudacris 
triseriata STEJNEGER and BARBOUR, Check List N. Amer. Amph. 
Reptil., ed. 2, 1923, p. 29.—In an area of flooded grass-land 1 mile north of 
Oradell, Bergen County, New Jersey, it was found that frogs of this species 
were much more wary and harder to secure than those of Hyla crucifera 
(April 19). 

Rana catesbeiana Shaw.—On April 28 a bullfrog was found sitting in the 
water of a pond 1 mile north of Leonia, Bergen County, New Jersey, but the 
song of the species was not heard at this time. 

Rana clamitans Latreille—Green-frogs are common in the vicinity of the 
larger of the small streams at the localities given below, as well as about small 
lakes and ponds. On April 20 they were very hard to secure at Garfield, 
Bergen County, New Jersey, where they often escaped by diving. Specimens 
were taken in the daytime from under flat stones near streams at Queensboro 
Lake and 1 mile north of Lake Tiorati, in Orange County, New York, on 


202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 9 


April 12, and on October 13 several examples, including a tadpole, were col- 
lected 12 miles southwest of the St. George Ferry, on Staten Island, Richmond 
County, New York. 

Rana halecina Linnaeus.—fhana halecona LINNAEUS, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, 
pt. 1, 1766, p. 356 (first latinized binomial name for Kalm’s sillhoppetosser, 
type locality, New Jersey) —BOULENGER, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and 
Sciences, 55: 433. 1920.—BURT, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., 44: 13. 1931.— 
Rana pipiens SCHREBER, Der Naturforscher, 18: 182, pl. 4. 1782 (type 
locality, Pennsylvania).—Leopard frogs were calling in Bergen County, New 
Jersey, on April 19, where they were secured at Garfield and 1 mile north of 
Leonia. 

Rana sylvatica Le Conte. On April 7 woodfrogs were not in full song at 
Harrington, Bergen County, New Jersey, but their notes were occasionally 
heard. Large egg masses were seen in a flooded meadow in this vicinity, and 
this indicated that the height of the mating season had passed. Examination 
of clusters revealed living embryos in various stages of development. 

On June 11 adult woodfrogs were obtained in Donald Park, Westchester 
County, New York, where they sought concealment by hopping into masses 
of green vegetation. A pond near here sheltered Rana clamitans, as attested 
by the characteristic “‘zoom’’ which came from that quarter. 


LIZARDS 


Sceloporus undulatus undulatus (Latreille)—On the sunny afternoon of 
October 12 pine lizards were very abundant about logs 1 mile west of Lake- 
hurst, Ocean County, New Jersey. 

Leiolopisma laterale (Say).—One of these little skinks was taken near a pile 
of brush 1 mile west of Lakehurst, Ocean County, New Jersey, in the same 
general habitat as Sceloporus undulatus undulatus. 


SNAKES 


Lampropeltis triangulum triangulum (Lacépéde).—On June 11, 1930, a 
young specimen of this king-snake, probably of the 1929 brood, was found in 
the open road in Donald Park, Westchester County, New York, where a 
stone pile at the side of the highway probably served as its home. 

Natrix sipedon sipedon (Linnaeus).—This water snake was captured near 
a stream in the vicinity of the railroad station at Tappan, Rockland County, 
New York, on April 15. 

Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis (Linnaeus).—On the sunny afternoon of Oc- 
tober 13, one of these snakes wandered into the road from its abode at the 
margin of a salt marsh 1 mile west of Matawan, Monmouth County, New 
Jersey; and here it was easily captured. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BouLencer, G. A. A monograph of the American frogs of thegenus Rana. Proc. Amer. 
Acad. Arts and Sciences, 55: 413-480. 1920. 

Burt, CHartes E. A report on some amphibians and reptiles from Kansas, Nebraska, 
and Oklahoma. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., 44: 11-16. 1931. 


* 


MAY 4, 1931 SWANTON: CADDO SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 203 


Burt, Cuarues E., and Burt, May Danuerm. A collection of amphibians and reptiles 
from the Mississippi Valley, with field observations. Amer. Mus. Novitates, 381: 
1-14. 1929. 

Myers, Grorae 8. Notes on Indiana amphibians and reptiles. Proc. Indiana Acad. 
Sci. 36: 337-340. 1927. 

Myers, GrEorGE 8S. Amphibians and reptiles observed in the Palisades Interstate Park, 
New York and New Jersey. Copeia, 173: 99-103. 1980. 

Nosue, G. K. Distributional list of the reptiles and amphibians of the New York City 
region. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. Guide Leaflet Series, 69: 1-9. 1927. 


ETHNOLOGY.—The Caddo social organization and its possible his- 
torical significance... JOHN R. Swanton, Bureau of American 
Ethnology. 


A large number of Indian tribes, as is well known, were divided 
internally into social groups called clans, gentes, or sibs. ‘These usually, 
though not invariably, bore the name of some animal, plant, or natural 
feature, and where this was not the case they often maintained special 
relations with such organisms or objects. Associations of this kind 
constitute what we know as totemism and have been the occasion of 
endless discussion. 

A striking characteristic of these tribal subdivisions is the fact that 
they were usually perpetuated either in the male line or the female line 
exclusively, and the terms above mentioned have been given technical 
definitions accordingly, a clan referring to a social group perpetuated 
in the female line, a gens to one perpetuated in the male line, while 
stb is employed when one wishes to indicate either indifferently. 
Often the sibs in any given tribe form larger groupings for which the 
terms phratry and moiety are used, the latter mainly restricted to the 
very common condition where there are but two major classes such as 
are represented among the Iroquois, Choctaw, and Haida. 

Divergencies from the standard are numerous, and it is always 
interesting to discover one of these since atypical forms usually throw 
more light upon the origin of the institution than those which fall into 
the classic categories. 

When the writer was among the Caddo Indians near Anadarko, 
Oklahoma, about twenty years ago, he elicited some interesting in- 
formation of this sort, but it has lain in manuscript because he was not 
then able to follow up the matter or check it. While he has not been 
able to verify this since, it seems worth while to make it a matter 
of record as there is no reason to doubt its substantial accuracy, and 
it suggests some important conclusions. 

The living Caddo consist of remnants of two considerable con- 


1 Received March 25, 1931. 


204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 9 


federations of five or six tribes each and two or three unattached tribes, 
which together occupied a large territory in parts of Louisiana, Texas, 
and Arkansas, where the three states meet. The speech of the two 
main groups differed only in a few words and some easily recognized 
sound shifts. ‘The tongue, or tongues, of the isolated tribes were, on 
the other hand, widely divergent, but they have been long extinct and 
do not here concern us. 

Some years before the writer’s visit, Mr. James Mooney, also of the 
Bureau of American Ethnology, spent a short time with the Caddo 
and he obtained a few notes regarding their clan divisions—for de- 
scent was usually reckoned by them in the female line—which were 
incorporated into the article on the Kadohadacho or Caddo proper, 
in the Handbook of American Indians. He learned the names of ten 
clans, as follows: Sun, Thunder, Eagle, Panther, Raccoon, Beaver, 
Crow, Bear, Wolf, and Bison. Caddo Jake, the oldest Indian of the 
tribe living in 1912 when the writer visited them, stated that this list 
was correct so far as it went, but he thought it was not sufficiently 
extensive. At an earlier period he believed there had been still other 
clans. 

However, particular interest attaches to information obtained from 
a second Caddo named White Bead whose age was almost equal to 
that of the man just mentioned. According to him there were but 
five clans, arranged in something of a caste system, with the 
animal esteemed most powerful at one end and the weakest at the 
other. In order of “strength” these clans were: Bison, Bear, Panther, 
Wolf, Beaver. Another irregularity was the fact that a man could 
marry a woman of his own clan, and vice versa, but this was evidently 
necessary if the facts regarding clan intermarriage were as reported. 
Thus, it was said that in case of marriage between a woman of a 
“stronger’’ clan and a man of a ‘weaker one,” all of the children belonged 
to the former, while in case of marriage between a man of a strong 
clan and a woman of a weak one, the boys were allocated with their 
father’s people and the girls with their mother’s. If marriages be- 
tween clans had been frequent, it is evident that the stronger ones 
would have gained constantly on the weaker ones to the probable 
extinction of some of the latter. 

White Bead added that, when inter-clan marriages of this kind took 
place, the near relatives on each side could make fun of, and play 
pranks upon, each other. Nothing was thought of it if persons con- 
nected in this way used the most outrageous expressions. If a man 
saw another bearing this relation to him mounted on a good horse, he 


MAY 4, 1931 SWANTON: CADDO SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 205 


could order him to dismount and ride away on it himself, leaving his 
victim to get even at some future time as best he could. 

Anciently each clan had its particular story, and all of these were 
supposed to fit together so as to make one narrative. 

The disagreement between White Bead’s information and that of 
Caddo Jake is not as important as might at first appear because White 
Bead belonged to one of the tribes of the western Caddo, the old Hasi- 
nai confederation, while Caddo Jake came from the Natchitoches tribe, 
from the easternmost part of the former Caddo country. These were 
separated sufficiently to have had quite diverse social systems. 

It is also to be remembered that the Natchitoches, who seem to have 
preserved the stricter clan system, were not far removed from tribes 
similarly organized, such as the Creeks and Chickasaw. In historic 


TABLE [| 
Caddo Creek Chickasaw 
Bison tanaha (N)? yanasa yannash 
tana’ (A) 
Bear namtsi (N) nokost nita 
nawotsi (H) 
Panther kishv? katca kot 
Wolf tdsha yaha nashoba 
Beaver iclaok (N) itcha’swa kinta 
tlaox (H) 
Eagle imi (N) lamhi Onsst 
iwi (H) 
Raccoon ot wotko shaur 


times the latter were less remote geographically but there is reason to 
think that they had borrowed their own organization from the Creeks. 
Under such circumstances it is particularly interesting to find certain 
striking resemblances between the Creek and Caddo names for those 
animals which both employed as designations of clans. To appreciate 
the force of this comparison the two are placed side by side in the sub- 
joined table along with the Chickasaw, and it is to be remembered 
that, when all three tribes were first known to Europeans, the Caddo 
and Creeks were entirely separated from each other by the Chickasaw 
and Choctaw (the Choctaw language being almost identical with 
Chickasaw). Where the Natchitoches and Hasinai languages em- 
ployed different terms for the animals in question, both have been in- 
serted and distinguished by the letters N and H. 

The first of the above comparisons may be left out of consideration 
because one word for “bison,” with slight variations, is used throughout 


2 In these words, accents and most diacritical marks have been omitted, tc is em- 
ployed for English ch, x for German ch; 7 indicates that the preceding vowel is nasalized, 
and / that the preceding consonant has an explosive sound. 


206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 9 


the Gulf area in languages wholly unrelated. Of the remaining six 
there is only one, the term for “wolf,” in which the Chickasaw form seems 
to be somewhat nearer that employed in Caddo. The remaining 
terms speak for themselves. Further indication of a former more 
westerly location of the Creeks is furnished by the Tunica language, 
spoken by a small tribe between the Chickasaw and Caddo, in which 
the word for “bear” is identical with that of the Creeks, and still 
another is supplied by the Creek migration legend which refers their 
origin to some point west of the Mississippi. The Caddo migration 
legend strengthens this by assigning Caddo origins to the region about 
Hot Springs, Arkansas, or the territory immediately southwest of it. 
What we know of the ceremonial mound system of the Creeks seems 
also to fall in line with the theory since it was of a type found along the 
lower Mississippi. 

But if the clan system, as exemplified particularly by the eastern 
Caddo, suggests Creek contact, the caste features of the Hasinai recall 
the old Natchez system and may indicate that the western Caddo 
were once on Red River south of their kindred. | 


CONCLUSIONS 


There are indications that the clan systems of the eastern and west- 
ern Caddo differed, and that they grew up in contact with the clan 
system of the Creeks, probably in the territory now embraced in the 
State of Arkansas, but certain features of the western Caddo system 
suggest contact with tribes of the Natchez group, probably in what is 
now Louisiana. This last point is left in considerable doubt by lack 
of confirmation of the writer’s data regarding western Caddo social 
organization, but that does not affect the rest of the argument. It 
may be found to have a bearing on the origin of the higher forms of 
culture on the lower Mississippi associated with the peoples loosely 
called ‘“‘Mound Builders.” 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


Resignation of Joun E. Grar as assistant chief of the Bureau of Entomol- 
ogy of the Department of Agriculture, to become associate director of the 
National Museum was announced recently. 8S. A. RoHwer, assistant chief 
of the plant quarantine and control administration, was appointed to fill the 
vacancy caused by the resignation of Mr. Grar. 


The Hillebrand prize of the Chemical Society of Washington has been 
awarded to Dr. CLaups 8. Hupson, professor of chemistry at the National 
Institute of Health of the Public Health Service, for his work on the ring 
structure of sugars. 


OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS 


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AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


: ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS 


Tuesday, May 5 The Botanical Society 
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Wednesday, May 13 The Geological Society 

The Medical Society 
Thursday, May 14 The Chemical Society 
Saturday, May 16 The Biological Society 

The Helminthological Society 
Tuesday, May 19 The Historical Society 


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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY 


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Corresponding Secretary: Paut E. Howe, Bureau of Animal Industry. 
Recording Secretary: Caartes THom, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. 
Treasurer; Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 21 May 19, 1931 No. 10 


ZOOLOGY.—On a collection of Copepoda made in El Salvador by 
Samuel F. Hildebrand and Fred J. Foster of the U. S. Bureau of 
Fisheries... C. Dwiacut Marsu. 


This collection consisted of 15 bottles which were collected by Mr. 
Hildebrand and Mr. Foster in January and February, 1924. They 
were taken from the following lakes: Ahuachapan, Chalchuapa, Cha- 
mico, Coatepeque, Guija, Ilopango, and Olomega. Ilopango, Coate- 
peque, Chamico, and Chalchuapa may be classed as deep lakes; Olo- 
mega and Ahuachapan as shallow. Hildebrand, 1925, (3),? found a 
depth of 83 meters in L. Coatepeque; he states that Chalchuapa and 
Chamico are quite deep, that Ahuachapan is shallow, and that Olomega 
has an average depth of 2 meters. He took a deep water temperature 
in Lake Guija at a depth of 16 meters; this may have been the maxi- 
mum depth. 

Juday, 1915, (4), gave descriptions and sketch maps of lakes Ilopango 
and Coatepeque. He found a maximum depth of 215 meters in Ilo- 
pango. In Coatepeque he found a maximum depth of 110 meters. 

All the collections were made from surface waters. Following is a 
list of the species found. 

Lake Ahuachapan Cyclops tenwis Marsh: Diaptomus marshi Juday 

Lake Chalchuapa Cyclops tenuis Marsh; Diaptomus marshi Juday 


Lake Chamico Diaptomus siciloides Lilljeborg 
Lake Coatepeque Cyclops leuckarti Claus; Cyclops tenuis Marsh 
Lake Guija Cyclops albidus Jurine; Cyclops tenuis Marsh; 


Diaptomus sp. all immature. 


1 Received April 1, 1931. 
2 Numbers in parenthesis refer to papers cited in the bibliography. 


207 


208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 10 


Lake Ilopango Diaptomus siciloides Lilljeborg 
Lake Olomega Cyclops leuckartt Claus; Diaptomus marshi 
Juday. 


It will be noticed that very few species were found, but it must be 
remembered that the collections were made within a short period of 
time and can be considered as representative of only the January and 
February fauna. The fact that the collections were all made at the 
surface must also be considered, for under certain conditions most of 
the mature copepods are found beneath the surface. This is shown 
in Juday’s (1915, p. 247) report of Lake Atitlan, in which no mature 
forms were found in the 0—5 meter collection, while large numbers 
appeared between 5 and 30 meters. 

The special interest of these collections is in the addition to our 
knowledge of the distribution of these species. Juday’s paper, 1915, 
is the only preceding paper dealing with the Copepoda of El Salvador. - 


Norres IN REGARD TO THE SPECIES 


No importance attaches to the presence of Cyclops albidus and Cyclops 
leuckartt. Both species are cosmopolitan, and may appear in any collections. 


CycLops TENUIS Marsh 


This is the first record of C. tenuzs in El Salvador. The species was de- 
scribed from material collected at Calabasas, Arizona. It is closely related 
to C. leuckarti from which it is distinguished by being smaller and more 
slender, with few (generally four) ova in each egg sac, lack of armature of the 
terminal segments of the female antennae, and the form of the receptaculum 
seminis. It was found in many localities in the Panama Canal Zone, Marsh 
1913, (5), Dodds, 1926, (2), and was considered one of the most characteristic 
species of that region. It was found in Lakes Ahuachapan, Chalchuapa, 
Coatepeque, and Guija. Itis to be presumed that eventually it will be found 
in other localities in Central America and Mexico. 


DIAPTOMUS SICILOIDES Lilljeborg 


Juday, 1915, has already reported D. siciloides from Lake Ilopango and 
Lake Coatepeque. Inthe Hildebrand and Foster collections it was found not 
only in these lakes but also in Lake Chamico. As shown by Marsh, 1929, 
(7), it is very widely distributed in the central and western United States. 
Since that publication it has been reported by Bajkov, 1930, (1), in Lake 
Winnepegosis, and has been found by Wright in Lake Erie. El Salvador is 
the most southern location and it has not been reported between that region 
and Texas. 

In the United States, D. szczloides is found generally in small bodies of 
water. Possibly it may be somewhat significant that in El] Salvador, it has, so 
far, appeared only in deep lakes. 


DIAPTOMUS MARSHI Juday 


Juday, 1915, reported D. marshi from Puerto Barrios and Los Amates, 
Guatemala, and wrote his description from material collected at those local- 


MAY 19, 1931 NELSON AND GOLDMAN: THREE PUMAS 209 


ities. Marsh, 1913, (5), reported it in the Panama Canal Zone and in 1919 (6), 
from Honduras. In the El Salvador collections it was found in Lakes Chal- 
chuapa, Olomega, and Ahuachapan, and Pearse, 1915, (8), found it in Col- 
ombia. Diaptomus columbiensis Thiebaud 1914, (9), also collected in 
Colombia, isa synonym of D. marshi. So far as our present knowledge is con- 
cerned, it has a somewhat limited distribution, being confined to Guatemala 
on the north and Colombia on the south. While not found in all localities, 
it is not a rare species and in Lake Ahuachapan occurred in large numbers. 
Its preferred habitat is in shallow water or pools, while D. sicilozdes, as 
stated above, is found, in El Salvador, in deep bodies of water. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


1. Basxov, ALEXANDER. Biological conditions of Manitoban lakes. Cont. Can. Biol. 
and Fisheries. N.S. Vol. V, No. 12, pp. 165-204. 1930. 

2. Dopps,G.S. Entomostraca from the Panama Canal Zone with description of one new 
species. Occasional papers of the Museum of Zoology, Univ. Mich., No. 174. 
1926. 

3. HILDEBRAND, SAMUEL F. Fishes of El Salvador, Central America. Bull. U. 8. Bur. 
Fisheries, Vol. XLI, Doc. 985. 1925. 

4. Jupay, Cuancey. LIimnological studies on some lakes in Central America. Trans. 
Wisc. Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters, Vol. XVIII, Part I, pp. 214-250. 1915. 

5. Marsy, C. Dwicut. Report on fresh-water Copepoda from Panama, with descrip- 
tions oJ new species. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Vol. 61, No. 3. 
1913. 

6. Marsx, C. Dwicut. Report ona collection of Copepoda made in Honduras by F. J. 
Dyer. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 55: 545-548. 1919. 

7. Marsx, C. Dwicut. Distribution and key of the North American copepods of the 
genus Diaptomus, with the description of a new species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 
Vol. 75, Art. 14, No. 2785. 1929. 

8. PrarsE, A. S. An account of the Crustacea collected by the Walker Expedition to 
Santa Marta, Colombia. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 49, No. 2123, pp. 531-556. 
1915. 

9. TureBaup, M. Voyage d’exploration scientifique en Colombia. Copépodes de Co- 
lombia et des Cordilleres de Mendoza. Mém. Soc. Neuchdteloise Sci. Nat., 5?: 
160-175. 1914. 


ZOOLOGY .—Three new pumas.! E. W. NEtson and E. A. GoLpMAN, 
Biological Survey, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture. 

Further study of the large American cats assigned to Felis concolor 
Linné has resulted in the segregation of three geographic races which, 
in addition to those recently characterized by the authors (Journ. 
Mamm., 10: 345-350, November 11, 1929), seem worthy of distine- 
tive names. 

Felis concolor kaibabensis, subsp. nov. 
Kaibab Mountain Lion 


Type.—From Powell Plateau, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona - 
(altitude 8,700 feet). No. 171186, &@ adult, U. S. National Museum (Bio- 
Bee Survey collection), collected by J. T. Owens, April 15,1911. X num- 

er 8432. 


1 Received April 15, 1981. 


210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 10 


General characters.—A large, long-haired, pallid subspecies, with dark 
median dorsal area comparatively ill defined, the general tone, merging with 
less contrast than usual into that of sides of back, owing in part to a reduction 
of the overlying black wash present in most forms of the group; skull large, 
narrow, and elongated. Most closely allied to F. c. hippolestes, but gen- 
erally paler, the dark median dorsal area less clearly defined; skull narrower. 
Larger than F’. c. azteca, and differing otherwise in about the same characters 
as from hippolestes. Differing from fF’. c. californica in larger size, paler color, 
and relatively narrower skull. Closely resembling F. c. brownz in color, but 
larger and cranial characters distinctive. 

Color—Type: ‘Top of head, neck, and rather poorly defined median dorsal 
area to base of tail light tawny, very thinly and inconspicuously overlaid with 
black, the tawny element deepest along lower part of back and rump, paling 
gradually through cinnamon buff on sides of neck, shoulders, along flanks and on 
outer surfaces of limbs to pale pinkish buff on feet ; lips, lower part of cheeks, chin, 
throat, chest, and inguinal region white; under surface of neck suffused with 
pinkish buff; belly overlaid on sides with pale pinkish buff, becoming whitish 
along median line; inner sides of limbs dull white, the drab basal color show- 
ing through; face in general buffy gray, with large whitish, supraorbital spots; 
blackish areas at base of vibrissae on sides of muzzle rather inconspicuous; 
ears blackish externally, broadly edged with gray extending also in a band 
across middle, thinly clad internally with white hairs; hairs around pads on 
feet brownish black; tail above light tawny, becoming dull pinkish buffy 
below to tip which is black, the black extending forward about three inches on 
upper side. 

Skull.—Very similar to that of F. c. hippolestes, but narrower and relatively 
more elongated, less rounded in general outline as viewed from above; 
zygomata less widely spreading; interpterygoid fossa narrower; dentition 
about the same. Similar in general to that of F. c. azteca, but larger and 
differing otherwise in the same proportions as from hippolestes. Larger and 
more elongated than that of F. c. californica, with flatter frontal region and 
relatively less widely spreading zygomata. Approaching that of F. c. browns 
in narrowness, but decidedly larger, with heavier dentition. _ 

Measurements.—Skull of type (no reliable measurements of body available) : 
Greatest length, 216.8 mm.; zygomatic breadth, 141.6; interorbital breadth, 
43.4; least width between outer walls of interpterygoid fossa, 29; alveolar 
length of upper canine-premolar series, 62.4; crown length of upper carnassial, 
22) 

Remarks.—The mountain lions of the Kaibab plateau north of the Grand 
Canyon of the Colorado River in northwestern Arizona, southwestern Utah 
and central and eastern Nevada, assigned to this subspecies, are closely allied 
to F. c. hippolestes which has an extended range from north to south in the 
Rocky Mountain region. While the differential characters are comparatively 
slight they are exhibited so consistently by the material examined that 
separate recognition by name seems necessary in order to clarify the relation- 


ships of neighboring forms. 
Felis concolor anthonyi, subsp. nov. 
Venezuelan Puma 


Type.—From Playa del Rio Base, Monte Duida, Territorio de Amazonas, 
southern Venezuela. No. 76935, o& adult, American Museum of Natural 
History, collected by Olalla Brothers, November 22, 1928. | 


MAY 19, 1931 NELSON AND GOLDMAN: THREE PUMAS 211 


General characters.—A large, short-haired, rusty reddish subspecies, with a 
massive skull. Similar in size to F. c. wavula, but type somewhat darker in 
general tone than specimens referred to that form, and skull differing in im- 
portant details. Differing from F’. c. bangsi and F. c. séderstromz in more 
rufescent coloration and cranial features. 

Color.—Type: Upper surface of neck and median dorsal area to base of 
tail near ferruginous or hazel, moderately mixed with black especially on the 
rump, becoming light tawny on sides of neck, shoulders, along flanks and outer 
sides of limbs, paling to near light pinkish cinnamon on feet; lips, except near 
base of vibrissae, chin and throat white; under surface of neck suffused with 
light pinkish cinnamon; chest, inner sides of limbs, inguinal region, and med- 
ian line of abdomen dull white; sides of abdomen invaded by irregular light 
tawny spots; top of head ferruginous mixed with black; face in general buffy 
brownish; a conspicuous black area at base of vibrissae; ears black externally, 
thinly clothed internally with whitish hairs; hairs around pads on feet black- 
ish; tail above buffy brownish, with a blackish median line, below dull buffy 
becoming black all around at tip which is tufted. 

Skull—Size large and structure massive. Similar in general to that of 
F. c. bangst, but much larger; interpterygoid fossa much broader; auditory 
bullae larger; dentition similar, but heavier. Not very unlike that of F. c. 
séderstromi, but larger; ascending branches of premaxillae ending on maxillo- 
nasal suture (premaxillary endings slightly deflected outward and incising 
maxillae in séderstromz) ; jugal reaching farther posteriorly, well into plane of 
glenoid fossa; auditory bullae larger; dentition similar but heavier. Com- 
pared with that of F. c. wavula the skull is broader; frontal region much 
broader; nasals more highly arched, less flattened anteriorly; ascending 
branches of maxillae less compressed, or ‘‘pinched in” laterally; interpterygoid 
fossa much broader; auditory bullae large as in wavula; dentition similar, 
but upper carnassial with internal cusp less prominent. 

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 1720 mm.; tail vertebrae, 725; 
hind foot, 245. Skull (type): Greatest length, 205; zygomatic breadth, 
143.5; interorbital breadth, 41.2; least width between outer walls of interp- 
terygoid fossa, 33.3; alveolar length of upper canine-premolar series, 62.5; 
crown length of upper carnassial, 23.5. 


Remarks.—Although based on a single specimen, a fine adult male, the 
characters presented by the type of F. c. anthonyi seem clearly beyond the 
range of individual variation in any of the forms described. From the Monte 
Duida region, near the upper Orinoco River, it may range into much of the 
upper Amazon Valley. The width of the interpterygoid fossa is remarkable 
and equalled in the known forms of the group only in F. c. pearsoni and F. c. 
puma which are widely different in other respects. This new puma is named 
for Mr. H. E. Anthony, Curator of Mammals, American Museum of Natural 
History, in recognition of his extensive explorations and research on the 
mammals of South America, and to whom we are indebted for the privilege of 
describing it. 

Felis concolor greeni, subsp. nov. 


East Brazilian Puma 


Type.—From Curraes Novos, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil. No. 249896, 
¢ adult, U. 8. National Museum (Biological Survey collection), collected by 
Edward C. Green, November, 1930. 


212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 10 


General characters.—A small, short-haired, rich rusty reddish subspecies, 
with small but robust skull and remarkably small teeth. Apparently not 
very closely allied to any known form. Similar in general to Felzs concolor 
concolor, but much smaller, and cranial characters distinctive. Not very 
unlike F. c. wavula and F. c. osgoodi in color, but much smaller and skull quite 
different. 

Color—Type: ‘Top of head, neck, and median dorsal area to base of tail 
rich cinnamon rufous, very thinly mixed with black, the general rufescent tone 
most intense along lower part of back and rump, becoming light tawny on 
sides of neck, shoulders, along flanks and on outer surfaces of limbs, paling 
gradually to near light pinkish cinnamon on feet; lips, except near base of 
vibrissae, chin and throat white; chest, inner sides of limbs, and inguinal 
region dull whitish; abdomen whitish, the sides with irregular but rather dis- 
tinct light tawny spots; face in general buffy brownish; ears blackish exter- 
nally, thinly clothed internally with whitish hairs; hairs around pads on feet 
brownish black; tail above ochraceous tawny rather heavily mixed with black 
along the median line, below ochraceous buffy, the tip tapering and lacking 
a distinct black terminal tuft. 

Skull.—Skull small, short, rounded and rather heavy. Similar in general to 
that of F. c. concolor, but much smaller; frontal region actually as well as 
relatively broader and flatter; nasals relatively narrower, more pointed 
posteriorly, less decurved along median line anteriorly; interpterygoid fossa 
relatively narower; auditory bullae relatively much smaller, more flattened, 
less inflated in front of meatus; jugal extending posteriorly to plane of glenoid 
fossa about as in concolor; dentition similar but much lighter, the individual 
teeth much smaller, except vestigial premolars and molars which are rather 
large. Compared with that of F. c. wavula the skull is smaller; frontal region 
broader; ascending branches of maxillae not compressed or ‘‘pinched in”’ 
laterally as in wavula; interpterygoid fossa narrower; auditory bullae smaller, 
less inflated anteriorly; dentition much lighter; upper carnassial with internal 
cusp less developed. In general form the skull somewhat resembles that of 
F. c. osgoodi, but is much smaller and differs in detail, the rostrum being less 
compressed laterally, the auditory bullae relatively smaller and dentition 
much lighter. 

Measurements.—Skull of type (no measurements of body available): 
Greatest length, 189 mm.; zygomatic breadth, 132.6; interorbital breadth, 
43.1; least width between outer walls of interpterygoid fossa, 26.6; alveolar 
length of upper canine-premolar series, 52.8; crown length of upper carnassial, 


Remarks.—Felis c. greeni from extreme eastern South America requires no 
very close comparison with any known form. In essential characters, how- 
ever, it agrees so closely with the other subspecies that the use of a trinomial 
name seems fully warranted. It is readily distinguished by small size and 
remarkably small teeth. The canines are especially short and weak. The 
new form is named for the collector of the type, Mr. Edward C. Green, a 
collaborator of the Biological Survey for many years. 


MAY 19,1931 GAHAN: PARASITES OF GRAIN INSECTS 213 


ENTOMOLOGY .—On certain hymenopterous parasites of stored-grain 
insects.1 A. B. Ganan, Bureau of Entomology. (Communi- 
cated by Harotp Morrison.) 


The recent untimely death of my good friend and colleague, Dr. 
James Waterston of the British Museum, brought to an end a corre- 
spondence and in later years a warm personal friendship covering a 
period of more than ten years, during which time Dr. Waterston’s 
whole-hearted and efficient cooperation was a source of very great 
helpfulness and pleasure to me. Shortly before his death in April, 
1930, we became mutually interested in solving the identity of certain 
parasites of stored-grain insects and had made considerable progress 
when the project was interrupted. Fortunately the assistance of Dr. 
Ch. Ferriere, of the Imperial Bureau of Entomology, has made it 
possible to complete the investigation, in part at least, and the results 
which deal with certain species of Bethylidae are deemed worthy of 
publication at this time. 


BETHYLIDAE 
Plastanoxus westwoodi (Kieffer) 
Figs. 1; 2, and 3. 

Cephalonomia formiciformis var. Westwood, Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 
1881, p. 127, pl. 6, fig. 4; male, female. 

Cephalonomia westwood: Kieffer, Das Tierreich, Bethylidae, 41 Lieferung, 
1914, p. 248. 

The species Cephalonomia formiciformis, which is type of the genus Ceph- 
alonomia, was described by Westwood in 1833? from specimens reared from 
a fungus growing in the neighbourhood of London. In 1833, Westwood re- 
published the description and figured both sexes of the species. In his re- 
marks he stated that he had received specimens of both sexes collected in 
Indian corn from Africa. In addition to figuring the winged and wingless 
forms of the female as well as the male of typical formiciformis, he published 
without further comment figures of the head, antenna, and wing of a male 
obtained from Indian corn. Apparently on the basis of Westwood’s figures, 
Kieffer recognized the form from Indian corn as different from typical formici- 
formis and gave to it the name Cephalonomia westwoodi Kieffer. 

Both the British Museum and the United States National Museum had 
accumulated a considerable number of specimens of Bethylidae reared from 
various lots of grain infested by beetles and some of this material obviously 
belonged to the genus Cephalonomia. Waterston found what he believed to 
be two species of this genus among his material and I discovered what I 
believed to be the same two forms in the material of the United States 


1 Received March 24, 1931. 
* Mag. Nat. Hist., 6: 421, fig. 55. 1833; female. 


214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO 


AS 
Se 


= 
= - 
SS 
yS- 
=: 
=) 
= 
= 
=-- 
aon 
Ss 


OQ Bip iis hie 
a iy py pte" 


EOS Ger. a yee 
Shey ppt ll lt 
CSS pe ean a Nig ps fi fee 
2) Mijn / 


Set 
2 FSS 


Ye se en ? 
ZZ / My oe ae oy v\ 
MPA TITAN 
Fig. 1. Copy of Westwood’s original figure of the wing of Cephalonomia formicifor- 
mis, variety from Indian corn, later named Plastanoxus westwoodi by J. J. Kieffer. 
Fig. 2. Plastanoxus westwoodi (Kieffer). Forewing as it actually is. 
Fig. 3. Plastanoxus westwoodi (Kieffer). Head of female. 


. 10 


—— 


MAY 19, 1931 GAHAN: PARASITES OF GRAIN INSECTS 215 


National Museum. One of these species we recognized as being C. tarsalis 
(Ashmead). The other seemed to agree rather closely with Westwood’s 
figures and Kieffer’s description of C’. westwoodi Kieffer. In order to settle the 
identity of this species the writer suggested to Waterston that he endeavor 
to see the type of C. westwoodi, which was believed to be in the Hope Museum 
at Oxford. Through the cooperation of Prof. E. B. Poulton of Oxford the 
desired specimens were located and turned over to Waterston for study. 
The types, which were easily identified by the labels, consisted of two females 
and a single male mounted on cards. After a preliminary examination of 
these types Waterston wrote me in January, 1930, as follows: ‘‘I have struck 
rather a snag regarding Cephalonomia. ‘There appears to be some slight 
difference between the antennae of the African type specimens and the ex- 
amples which you and I have gathered. I am quite convinced, however, 
that our gatherings contain the same forms, and I shall send you my collec- 
tion whenever I have come to a definite conclusion on the matter”. In Febru- 
ary he again wrote me, saying, ‘‘I have obtained permission from Prof. Poul- 
ton to send you one of the original examples of Cephalonomia first described 
by Westwood asa variety of the common British form and later described by 
Kieffer. I do not think that this Westwood material is identical with our 
gatherings but I should like you to see the insect and form your own opinion. 
I am also sending you my own grain-pest material of the genus which is quite 
comparable with the material you have been collecting. It may interest 
you to see what I have’. This material arrived later in good shape and 
proved very interesting. 

At first examination the Westwood specimen, a female, appeared to be a 
Cephalonomia but did not seem to agree with either of the two species of that 
genus represented in the grain-pest material before me. The specimen was 
glued to the card in such a way that the wing venation was only partly visible. 
By moistening one wing very slightly it was found possible to raise it from the 
card without detaching it from the specimen. When examined in its original 
position on the card, the venation appeared almost exactly as figured by West- 
wood, but when raised from the card it immediately became evident that this 
specimen at least had a long radial vein which was entirely lacking in the figure. 
Since the radial vein is lacking in typical Cephalonomia this specimen was run 
through Kieffer’s key to the genera of Bethylidae and found to run directly 
to Plastanoxus Kieffer, the genotype of which is P. chittendeni (Ashmead). 


Fig. 4. Cephalonomia waterstoni Gahan. a, forewing: b, hind wing. 
Fig. 5. Cephalonomia waterstoni Gahan. Head of female. 
Fig. 6. Cephalonomia tarsalis (Ashmead). Forewing. 
Fig. 7. Cephalonomia tarsalis (Ashmead). Head of female. 
Fig. 8. Rhabdepyris zeae Waterston. a, forewing: b, hind wing. 
All figures greatly enlarged. Drawings were made by, ELEANOR A. CARLIN, artist of 
the Bureau of Entomology. 


216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 10 


When compared with the types of chittendeni, which are in the United States 
National Museum collection, the specimen proved to be congeneric but a 
different species. 

However, a review of Westwood’s original remarks revealed the specific 
statement that his figures of the insect from grain were drawn from the male. 
The question then presented itself whether the male figured by Westwood 
(and therefore the holotype of the species) and the female examined by me 
were in reality the same species. Not having seen the male type I was in no 
position to answer this question. In the meantime Waterston’s fatal illness 
developed and he passed away. 

Fortunately Mr. Ch. Ferriere located the male specimen in question among 
other material on Waterston’s desk, and he has recently informed me that he 
has compared this specimen with the female and found them to be specific- 
ally identical in venation as well as otherwise. ° 

It is certain therefore that the figures by Westwood of the insect from In- 
dian corn are incomplete (see Figs. 1 and 2) and that the so-called Cepha- 
lonomia westwood: Kieffer is not a Cephalonomia but belongs in the genus 
Plastanoxus. The species is very similar to Plastanoxus chittendeni but 
may be easily distinguished. The following key will suffice to distinguish. 
the three known species of the genus Plastanoxus Kieffer. Only P. west- 
woodi is known to be a parasite of stored-grain pests.® 


Kerry To THE KNOWN Species oF Plastanoxus KIBFFER 


1. Forewing with median and submedian cells complete and distinct. Pro- 
podeum with a very distinct and complete median longitudinal carina. 
Radial vein extending fully two-thirds of the distance to wing-apex. 

P. laevis (Ashmead) 

Forewing with median and submedian cells effaced. Propodeum without 

longitudinal carina. Radial vein reaching less than two-thirds of dis- 
tance to apex of wing. 

2. Radial vein extending a little more than half the distance from its origin 
to the apex of wing; head of the female viewed from in front fully one 
and one-half times as long as broad, about 18:11, its sides nearly paral- 
lel; female antennae short, none of the flagellar joints except the api- 
cal one longer than broad, the first and second flagellar joints distinctly 
broader than long, apical joint ovate and nearly twice as long as broad; 
male head 13:12; male antennae longer than in the female, the flagellar 
joints except the first and second all slightly longer than broad, first 
and second nearly quadrate, apical joint twice as long as broad. Eyes 
in both sexes situated much nearer to the mouth than to the vertex. 
Pronotum distinctly more than twice as long as mesoscutum; propo- 
deum-twice aslong as'scutellum 2.36 se. : P. westwoodi (Kieffer) 

Radial vein extending distinctly less than half the distance from its origin 
to apex of wing. (Female unknown.) Head of male scarcely longer 
than broad, about 15:14, its sides rounded; antennae longer, all 


3 The species Bethylus musculus Say which is referred to Plastanoxus by Kieffer is 
known only from the original description. It may or may not belong here. It appar- 
ently differs from all of those included in the key by having the ‘‘feet honey-yellow.”’ 


- may 19, 1931 GAHAN: PARASITES OF GRAIN INSECTS 217 


flagellar joints distinctly a little longer than broad, the first and sec- 
' ond not or scarcely shorter than the others, apical joint more than 
twice as long as broad. Eyes not or very little nearer mouth than ver- 
tex. Pronotum not twice as long as mesoscutum; propodeum not 
quite twice as long as scutellum............ P. chittendeni (Ashmead) 


Plastanoxus kiefferi is a slender species, 1 to 1.25 mm. in length, wholly 
black except the tarsi which are yellowish; head wholly smooth, impunctate, 
and shining; pronotum, mesoscutum, and scutellum also polished, parapsidal 
grooves absent; propodeum longer than broad, finely and distinctly punctate 


OAT a NY 
Miyagi 


ff ts i 


Be Le ei ey 
@ i LE 


ii os 
Gj, jy il an 


Fig. 9.—Adult female of Cephalonomia tarsalis Ashmead. 


(Greatly enlarged.) 
Drawing by H. Braprorp. 


basally, the dorsal apex mostly polished; abdomen practically smooth, the 
tergites beyond the first very faintly reticulated. 

In addition to the type female already mentioned, the writer has seen the 
following material: Fourteen specimens (2 males and 12 females) in the 
United Station National Museum, reared at Washington, D. C., from the 
pupal cell of Laemophloeus (Cryptolestes) pusillus Schénherr, by R. T. Cotton 
March 16, 1925; one male in the British Museum tentatively identified by 
Waterston as Cephalonomia sp. in Reports of the Grain-Pests (War) Commit- 


218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 10 


tee, No. 9, and shown in that report (see page 51, No. 324) to have been 
collected at Plymouth, England, from a shipment of grain from Sydney, 
Australia, which was infested by several different species of beetles, one of 
which was the species above named; one previously unidentified specimen, 
also in the British Museum, bearing the number 381, which number un-- 
doubtedly refers to the shipment of grain mentioned in the above-named re- 
port (see page 48, No. 381) as having been received at Sunderland, England, 
from Freemantle, Western Australia, and which was likewise infested by 
several species of beetles of which L. puszllus was one. 

Apparently then P. westwoodi is a widely distributed species, probably 
occurring in Africa, Australia, and North America, and parasitic upon Laemo- 
phloeus pusillus. 


Cephalonomia tarsalis (Ashmead) 
Figs. 6, 7 and 9. 


Ateleopterus tarsalis Ashmead, Bul. U. S. Nat. Mus., 45: 45. 1893. 

Neoscleroderma tarsale Kieffer, in Wytsman’s Gen. Ins., 76: 41. 1908. 

Neoscleroderma tarsale Kieffer, Das Tierreich, 41: 270. 1914. 

Neoscleroderma tarsalis Brues, Conn. Geol. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bul. 22, Hy- 
menoptera, 1917, p. 610. 

Neoscleroderma tarsalis Washburn, 17th Rept. Sta. Ent. Minn., 1918, p. 
205. 

Cephalonomia kiefferr Fouts, Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., 22: 71. 1920. 

Ateleopterus tarsalis Back and Cotton, Jour. Agr. Res., 33: 449. 1926. 

? Cephalonomia sp. Myers, Bul. Ent. Res., 20: 428. 1929. 

Cephalonomia tarsalis Gahan, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 77: 11, art. 8. 1930. 

This species, although closely resembling the following new species, is 
easily distinguished from it by the presence of a complete and distinct median 
cell in the forewing (Pl. I, Fig. 6). It is also slightly larger, the head is not 
parallel-sided but distinctly broader at middle than at either vertex or mouth, 
the eyes are situated at or very near the middle of head, the antennae of 
female longer with at least the 10th and 11th joints slightly longer than broad 
and the 12th about two and one-half times as long as broad. | 


Female.—Length 1.7 to 2mm. Shining black, the antennal scape black, 
flagellum brown to brownish black, all tarsi and usually the anterior tibiae 
reddish yellow; wings hyaline, the venation brownish. 

Head pronotum, mesoscutum, and scutellum with fine shallow reticulate- 
punctate sculpture; propodeum dorsally very distinctly and nearly uniformly 
reticulate-punctate and with a very distinct and usually complete median 
longitudinal carina; abdomen as long as thorax, ovate, smooth, the third, 
fourth, and fifth tergites each with an arcuate depression before the apex, 
this depressed area defined anteriorly by more or less of a ridge which is more 
prominent laterally than at middle. 

Male.—Similar in every way to the female except that the antennae are 
entirely black, more slender than in female, joints 3 to 11 each twice or 
nearly twice as long as broad, joint 12 three times as long as broad; abdo- 
men shorter than the thorax, ovate. 


MAY 19, 1931 GAHAN: PARASITES OF GRAIN INSECTS 219 


Redescribed from the types and 40 additional specimens in the United 
States National Museum. 


Cephalonomia tarsalis was originally described from specimens reared 
from Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Linnaeus) collected at Lafayette, Indiana, 
and Washington, D. C. The above cited references by Kieffer, Brues, and 
Washburn are for the most part merely repetitions of this original record. 
Back and Cotton record the species from Washington, D. C., reared from the 
same host and also from Texas from an unidentified host. The types of C. 
kiefferc Fouts, which species was synonymized with tarsalis by Gahan in 
1930, were reared from Sztophilus oryzae (Linnaeus) at Wellington, Kansas. 
The national collection contains specimens reared from O. surinamensis at 
Vienna, Virginia, by R. A. Cushman, and from Columbus, Ohio, by O. E. 
Gahm. Other specimens without definite host records are from Fresno, Cali- 
fornia, collected by J. C. Hamlin, Sept. 24, 1924, and W. D. Reed, Sept. 7, 
1925; Saticoy, California, S. E. Flanders; Bozeman, Montana, R. A. Cooley; 
and Agricultural College, Michigan, D. B. Whelan. I have also seen numer- 
ous specimens, now in the British Museum, collected from shipments of 
infested grain during the World War and listed in Reports of the Grain Pests 
(War) Committee, No. 9, 1921, pp. 50-52, under the name Cephalonomia sp. 
and comprising lots numbers 201, 206, 222, 324 (in part), 358, 371, 378, 382, 
and 387 as there enumerated. All of these shipments of grain seem to have 
originated in Australia and in practically every instance either Oryzaephilus 
surinamensis or Sitophilus oryzae were found to be present in the shipment. 
In most instances both of these species were present along with other species 
of Coleoptera which infest stored grain. 

It appears certain from the above records that C. tarsalis occurs in both 
Australia and North America and it seems highly probable that it will be found 
to be practically cosmopolitan. The records show only Oryzaephilus suri- 
namensis and Sitophilus oryzae definitely established as hosts of. the species 
but it is not improbable that other related grain-infesting beetles may be 
attacked. 

The interesting account by J. G. Myers of Cephalonomia sp. attacking 
Silvanus in Australia, cited above, very probably involves this species and 
may also involve the following species. Myers states that Waterston recog- 
nized the species as identical with the species collected by the Grain Pests 
(War) Committee. Waterston, I believe, was not aware at that time that this 
material included two species and it is impossible to tell from Myers’s ac- 
count which species he had under observation. 


Cephalonomia waterstoni, new species 
Figs. 4 and 5 


Readily distinguished from C. tarsalis by the absence of a complete median 
cell in the forewing, the more nearly parallel-sided head, and the fact that the 
eyes are situated below the middle of the head. 


220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 10 


Female.—Length 1.6 mm. Black and shining; mandibles, pedicel, and 
first flagellar joint more or less, and all tarsi yellowish; antennal flagellum 
and the tibiae brownish black; wings hyaline or with a very faint discal cloud. 
Head viewed from in front longer than broad (20:16), the sides nearly parallel 
or very slightly convex; eyes situated much nearer to mouth than to vertex, 
about their own length below vertex; ocelli distinct, in an equilateral tri- 
angle; whole head finely reticulate-punctate. Antennae inserted at clypeus, 
12-jointed; scape two and one-half to three times as long as broad, pedicel 
about one and one-half times as long as broad, joints 3 to 11 subquadrate, 
joint 12 about twice as long as broad. Thorax flattened dorsally and with 
reticulate-punctate sculpture like the head; pronotum about three times the 
length of mesoscutum, much narrower anteriorly than posteriorly; mesoscu- 
tum without longitudinal grooves; scutellum distinctly longer than mesoscu- 
tum, with a short groove or pit on either side of base; propodeum flat, in the 
same plane as scutellum, as long as pronotum, distinctly narrower at apex 
than at base, sculptured like the thorax, finely margined laterally and at 
apex of dorsum, a very delicate median longitudinal carina present or ab- 
sent, the lateral and posterior faces sculptured like the dorsum. Wings 
(see Pl. I, Fig. 5) well-developed, the prostigma and pterostigma very small, 
other veins except the submarginal effaced, the forewing without basal cells. 
Legs normal, the femora moderately swollen, the hind tarsi longer than their 
tibiae. Abdomen ovate, a little broader than the thorax and subequal to it in 
length, smooth and polished, the third tergite with a barely perceptible 
suggestion of a depression on each side of the middle. 

Male.—Unknown. 

Ty pe-locality.—Australia. 

Type.—Cat. No. 48361, U.S. N. M. 


Described from 11 female specimens taken at quarantine in Washington, 
D. C., by E. A. Back from a shipment of grain the original source of which 
was said to be Australia; also four females collected from stored corn at Baton 
Rouge, Louisiana, November 12, 1928, by C. O. Hopkins, and bearing Louisi- 
ana Agricultural Experiment Station No. 1511; also one female taken at 
Urbana, Illinois, January 26, 1927, by W. V. Balduf. 

I have likewise seen numerous specimens now in the British Museum, 
the same being those listed in the Royal Society’s 9th Report of the Grain 
Pests (War) Committee, 1921, listed under the name Cephalonomia sp. _ 
(p. 50) and comprising the lots numbered 247, 262, 266, 347, 348, 349, 370, 
384, 386, 389, and 390 of that report. According to that report one or more 
of the following species of Coleoptera were present in each of these shipments 
of grain: [Calandra] Sitophilus oryzae (Linnaeus), [Calandra] Sztophilus gra- 
naria (Linnaeus), Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), T. confusum Duval, Rhizo- 
pertha dominica (Fabricius), [Szlvanus] Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Linnaeus), 
Laemophloeus pusillus (Schénherr), Anthicus floralis (Linnaeus), Carpophilus 
dimidiatus (Fabricius), Tenebroides mauritanicus (Linnaeus), and [Cathar- 
tus| Ahasverus advena (Waltl). 

The species has not been associated with any definite host but is in all 
probability parasitic upon one or more of the Coleoptera which infest stored 
grain. It is apparently established in Australia and North America and 
probably occurs elsewhere. 


. MAY 19, 1931 GAHAN: PARASITES OF GRAIN INSECTS 221 


As pointed out in discussion of C. tarsalis, the account by J. G. Myers of 
Cephalonomia sp. in Australia may possibly involve this species. 


Cephalonomia meridionalis Bréthes 


Cephalonomia meridionalis Bréthes, An. Mus. Nae. Hist. Nat. Buenos 
Aires, 24: 87. 1913. 

This species is unknown to the writer. It is said to be parasitic upon 
[Silvanus| Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Linnaeus) in Argentina. 

It apparently differs from both of the foregoing species by having the coxae 
testaceous. 

Cephalonomia sp. 

Cephalonomia sp. Grandi, Bol. Lab. Ent. R. Ist. Super. Agr. Bologna, 
2: 301-314, figs. 1-9. 1929. 

Grandi describes and figures a species reared from Sztodrepa panicea Lin- 
naeus in Italy as Cephalonomia sp. He was unable to identify this insect 
specifically. 

This species is evidently different from either C. tarsalis or C. waterstonz7. 
The head resembles that of waterstoni, but the venation is more reduced, 
the prostigma and pterostigma apparently effaced in the alate male, while 
the female is wingless. 


Rhabdepyris zeae Waterston 

Rhabdepyris zeae Waterston, 9th Rept. Grain Pests (War) Committee, 
Roy. Soc. Lond., 1921, p. 27, figs, 14 and 15; Gahan, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus., 
fi ie art. 8. 1930. 

Originally described from a specimen taken at Liverpool, England, in a 
shipment of grain from Africa. The writer has recently recorded its occur- 
rence in stored grain at Lafayette, Indiana, and Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 
as a probable parasite of Tribolium confusum. Five specimens more recently 
received were reared from stored grain at Brownwood, Texas, by J. L. 
Gardiner. 

The wings of this species are figured for comparison with the other species 
(see Pl. I Fig. 8). i 

Parepyris sylvanidis Bréthes 

Parepyris meridionalis Bréthes, An. Mus. Nac. Nat. Hist. Buenos Aires, 
2287. 19138. 

This species is unknown to me. It is said to be parasitic upon [Szlvanus] 
Oryzaephilus surinamensis in Argentina. 

Parepyris is characterized by Bréthes as a new and monobasic genus. 
At about the same time Kieffer (Boll. Lab. Zool. Portici, 7: 108. 1913) 
proposed Parepyris as a new genus with Hpyris interruptus Kieffer as the 
genotype. Parepyris Kieffer and Parepyris Bréthes are apparently different 
genera but the writer is unable at present to determine which has priority, 
as the exact date of publication of Kieffer’s paper is not clear. 


222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 10 


ENTOMOLOGY .—Notes on Gypona octolineata (Say). J. W.Scriv- 
ENER, Bureau of Entomology, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. 
(Communicated by J. S. WADE.) 

In connection with the investigations of leafhoppers that are being 
carried on by the Bureau of Entomology at Arlington Experiment 
Farm (post office, Rosslyn, Virginia), some seedling apple trees grown 
on the experiment farm and apparently infested with some species of 
leafhoppers were brought into the greenhouse January 10, 1930. By 


Fig. 1—Nymph of Gypona octolineata on apple stem at A. When.this nymph was 
photographed it had not settled down to feeding, so the head is not in contact with the 
stem; neither is the abdomen curved outward from the stem in the usual manner, in 
which position the mimicry of the stipules is most pronounced. 


January 28 a number of nymphs of Gypona octolineata? had hatched 

out on them. These were kept upon seedling apple plants in cellu- 

loid cages in order that their development might be studied. The 

entire nymphal development of a single individual of this species was 

observed. It covered 38 days—from February 26 to April 5. The 
1 Received March 27, 1931. 


2 Adults of this material were kindly identified as Gypona octolineata Say, var. striata 
Burm., by Dr. Herbert Osborn. 


MAY 19, 1931 BLACKMAN: PSEUDOPITYOPHTHORUS 223 


temperatures in the greenhouse during this period ranged from 75° 
to 85°F. As stated, the leafhopper was confined upon the host plant 
in a small celluloid cage, but in order that it might have reasonably 
good host material, it was moved to a fresh leaf every four or five days. 
The duration of the five nymphal stages, increasing in length with each 
instar, were 1, 4, 5, 10, and 18 days, respectively. 

The main purpose of this brief article is to record the apparent pro- 
tective mimicry which is enjoyed by the nymphs of this species when 
they follow their normal feeding habits. When placed upon the 
plants many of them soon found their way to the base of the petioles 
of the leaves and at this point they so closely resembled the stipules 
(Figure 1, A) that anyone unaccustomed to looking for them would 
have had considerable difficulty in finding them. They moved about 
very little after they had settled down for feeding on the stem. In one 
instance an individual was known to have fed for three weeks in the 
same position. ‘This was determined from microscopic sections of the 
plant material to which this individual was exposed during the period. 
Feeding on the stem takes place with the head downward and with 
the abdomen pointing upward and curving outward from the stem. 
In this position the leafhopper is very similar in appearance to the 
stipules of the plant, which are of the same green color as the nymphs. 


ENTOMOLOGY .—A revisional study of the genus Pseudopityoph- 
thorus Sw. in North America.1. M. W. Buackman, Bureau of En- 
tomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. (Communicated 
by Haroutp Morrison.) 

In a former paper on the genus Pityophthorus Eichh. and its allies 
in North America the writer (1928) treated in detail the taxonomy of 
the genera Myeloborus Blackm., Pityophthorus Eichh., Pityoborus 
Blackm., and Pityophilus Blackm., gave keys to the genera of the 
Pityophthori (which includes Conophthorus Hopk., Pseudopityoph- 
thorus Sw., and Gnathotrichus Eichh. in addition to those just men- 
tioned), and discussed in a general way the relationships of these vari- 
ous genera. The present paper should be considered as a continuation 
of the larger paper and deals with the genera Pseudopityophthorus Sw., 
while another paper on Gnathotrichus Eichh. will follow immediately. 

This paper is based upon a study of the Scolytid material in the 

National Museum and in the writer’s own collection. 


1 Received April 16, 1931. 


224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 10 


The Genus Pseudopityophthorus Swaine 


The genus Pseudopityophthorus was described by Swaine (1918) as 
follows: ‘The antennal club with strongly arcuate sutures, the distal 
segments much wider than the first; the tibia coarsely serrate; the 
elytra not striate, irregularly finely punctulate; the intercoxal process 
of the prosternum elongate; the male with the front clothed with long 
arcuate yellow hairs. Allied to Pityophthorus Eichh., in which it has 
been included.”’ 7 

This description applies with exactness to the type species which is 
designated as P. minutissimus Zimmermann (1868) and applies reason- 
ably well to all of the species in Division AA of the key on a succeed- 
ing page of the present paper. However, it does not apply in its 
entirety to the species in Division A, only one of which (P. asperulus 
Lec.) was known at the time Swaine’s genus was erected. The mem- 
bers of this division differ in being usually smaller, with a more slender 
body, with the elytral punctures sparser and either in regular or nearly 
regular strial rows, with the declivity less strongly impressed, and with 
the septa of the antennal club subtransverse. ; 

Before the erection of the genus Pseudopityophthorus by Swaine 
(1918) several species had been described and had been assigned to 
various genera by different authors. 

P. pubipennis was first described by LeConte (1860) under the name 
of Bostrichus pubipennis from San Jose, Calif. Later LeConte (1868) 
referred it to the genus Cryphalus Er. and still later (1876) to Pityoph- 
thorus Eichh. | 

P. minutissimus Zimm. was described in 1868 as of the genus Cryp- 
turgus Er. LeConte (1868) transferred it to Cryphalus Er. and later 
(1876) to Pityophthorus. | 

P. asperulus Lec. was described by LeConte (1868) under the name 
of Cryphalus asperulus. Water the same author (1876) transferred it — 
to Pityophthorus. Eichhoff (1878) retained it in Pityophthorus and 
placed it close to the other forms now included in Pseudopityophthorus. 
Schwarz (1886) referred to this species as Gnathotrichus asperulus and 
later writers, including Swaine (1909, 1918), have followed him. 
Pseudopityophthorus gracilus Blackm. described by the writer in 1921 
should be regarded as a synonym of asperulus Lec. 

P. pruinosus was described by Ejichhoff (1878) from “Carolina’”’ 
as of the genus Pityophthorus. Pityophthorus querciperda described 
by Schwarz (1888) is identical, as has been pointed out by Eichhoff 
and Schwarz (1896). 


MAY 19, 1931 BLACKMAN: PSEUDOPITYOPHTHORUS 225 


Pityophthorus tomentosus was described by Ejichhoff (1878) from 
“America borealis.”’ This species has never been recognized with 
certainty since, and to the present writer it seems probable that it 
was based on an aberrant specimen of P. pruinosus. 

The form described as Cryphalus pilosus (pilosulus) by LeConte 
(1868) was by him later (1876) transferred to Pityophthorus, in which 
it was retained by Eichhoff (1878) and Swaine (1909). In 1918 Swaine 
placed it among the species in his genus Pseudopityophthorus. An 
examination of the type of this species indicates that it belongs to 
neither Pityophthorus nor Pseudopityophthorus. 

Harris (1837) described Tomicus pusillus. LeConte (1868) sug- 
gested that this species may be identical with minutissimus Zimm.., 
and Eichhoff (1878) placed the latter name as a synonym of Pityoph- 
thorus pusillus Har. The species described by Harris can not be 
recognized at the present time. The description is rather general 
and might equally well be applied to several small Scolytids occurring 
in the Northeastern States and in fact has been used by various 
authors for species in several genera of bark beetles. The single speci- 
men from which the description was prepared never formed a part of 
Harris’s own collection and has apparently long since been lost. 


KEY TO THE SPECIES OF PSEUDOPITYOPTHORUS Sw. 


A. Body more slender, more than 2.9 times as long as wide; elytra moder- 
ately to narrowly rounded behind, the punctures sparse to moderately 
numerous, in regular or nearly regular rows; declivity with second inter- 
space weakly flattened; antennal club with septa of sutures 1 and 2 
subtransverse. 

B. Front of head in male narrow, flattened, not fringed with long hairs; 
that of female with a frontal elevation; antenna with club nearly twice 
as long as funicle; pronotum more than 1.2 times as long as wide; 
smaller, less ham. (25 mim: lome' s+ ..). .i.)30- Saeed was asperulus Lec. 

BB. Front of head in male fringed with long hairs; antennal club less than 
1.7 times as long as funicle; pronotum less than 1.15 times as long as 
wide; larger, more than 1.3 mm. long. 

C. Elytra narrowly rounded behind; sides of pronotum not strongly 
constricted before the middle; antennal club with segments 2 and 3 
subequal in width. 

D. Smaller, less than 1.4 mm. long; pronotal summit not markedly 
lighter in color; elytral hairs nearly uniform, fine, short, semi- 
Sheer Ee SOMMeCAStEr Oba LES ).1 ead qaiisy lowe ce gte fagi, n. sp. 

DD. Larger, more than 1.7 mm. long; pronotal summit notably lighter 
in color; elytral hairs more abundant, those fom the interspaces 
coarser, longer, and more erect. 

kK. Pronotum with dise moderately shining, distinctly pubescent; 
elytra with hairs from the interspaces very long; declivity 
without granules; Southeastern States...... pubescens, n. sp. 
EE. Pronotal dise brightly shining, subglabrous; elytra with inter- 
spacial hairs moderately long; declivity with interspaces finely 
eranulate; Southwestern States............ granulatus, 7. sp. 


226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 10 


CC. Elytra moderately rounded behind; sides of pronotum arcuate 
behind, strongly constricted before the middle; antennal club widest 
through thirdsseementis:y. 4 «ea. ates hen ae eee agrifoliae, n. sp. 

AA. Body stouter, less than 2.8 times as long as wide; elytra moderately to 
broadly rounded behind, the punctures irregular, very fine and close; 
declivity distinctly, often strongly impressed at each side of suture: 
antennal club with septa of sutures 1 and 2 strongly arcuate except in 
minutisstmus. 

B. Smaller, less than 1.85 mm. long; eee moderately rounded behind; 
pubescence very fine, short, appressed; antennal club with segments 

2 and 3 subequal in width. 

C. Elytral pubescence uniform, not notably different on declivity; 
declivity faintly impressed at each side of suture; front of head 
broadly plano-concave; antennal club with septa of sutures 1 and 2 
weakly arcuate; Eastern States............ minutissimus Zimm. 

CC. Elytral pubescence broader and more scalelike on the declivity; 
declivity distinctly impressed at each side of suture; front of head 
broadly plano-convex; antennal club with septa of sutures 1 and 2 
moderately arcuate; Southwestern States...... ', .pulvereus, n. sp. 

BB. Larger, more than 1.85 mm. long; elytra broadly rounded behind, 
pubescence coarser and longer, with longer hairs on certain discal inter- 
spaces and on the declivity; antennal club widest through the third 
segment, with septa of sutures 1 and 2 strongly arcuate. 

C. Front of head in male with an impunctate, shining, median ¢allus; 
pronotum with sides feebly constricted before the middle, anterior 
margin very broadly rounded, disc moderately to brightly shining, 
more deeply, less closely punctured. 

D. Elytral pubescence dense, rather short and stout, that on the 
declivity longer on the first and third interspaces; smaller; 
BasternStabeg scl) ee Us) Ee eas pruinosus Eichh. 

DD. Elytral pubescence less dense, longer and more slender, the longer 
hairs on the declivity slender, long, and conspicuous, but often 
abraded; usually much larger; Western States. 

E. Dise of pronotum brightly shining, more sparsely punctured, 
devoid of pubescence; elytra less densely punctured, pubescence 
sparser; declivital hairs longer, finer, and more abundant; 
female frons with faint longitudinal carinal line 

yavapail, n. sp. 

EE. Disc of pronotum moderately shining, rather closely punctured, — 
with very short hairs; elytra densely punctured and pubescent; 
declivital hairs shorter, coarser, and less abundant; female 
frons with small impunctate area above epistomal margin 

pubipennis Lec. 

CC. Male frons without median callus; pronotum with sides strongly 
constricted before the middle, anterior margin narrower, the disc — 
opaque, more closely and deeply punctured; elytra with the longer 
hans -of deehivahy; ravhenystoul nee aie ohn. opacicollis, n. sp. 


Pseudopityophthorus asperulus Lec. 
Figs. 1 and 2. 
Description of the adult male-—Dark brown to black with the summit of the 
pronotum reddish-brown; 1.14 to 1.4 mm. long, slightly more than three 
times as long as wide. 


MAY 19, 1931 BLACKMAN: PSEUDOPITYOPHTHORUS 227 


Fig. 1. Fore tibia of Pseudopityophthorus asperulus Lec.—Fig. 2. Antenna of P. 
asperulus Lec.—Fig. 3. Antenna of P. fagi n. sp.—Fig. 4. Antenna of P. pubescens 
n. sp.—Fig. 5. Antenna of P. granulatus n. sp. male, 5a female.—Fig. 6. Fore tibia of P. 
minutissimus Zimm.—Fig. 7. Antenna of P. minutissimus Zimm.—Fig. 8. Antenna of 
P. agrifoliae n. sp.—Fig. 9. Fore tibia of P. pulvereus n. sp.—Fig. 10. Antenna of P. 
pulvereus n. sp.— Fig. 11. Fore tibia of P. yavapaii n. sp.—Fig. 12. Antenna of P. 
yavapaii n. sp.—Fig. 13. Antenna of P. pruinosus Hichh.—Fig. 14. Antenna of P. pubi- 
pennis Lec.—Fig. 15. Antenna of P. opacicollis n. sp. 


All figures were made by the writer from preparations mounted in balsam, using a compound microscope 
and a camera lucida. All are magnified about 112 diameters. 


228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 10 


Front of head flattened on a semicircular area, shining, finely, not closely 
punctured, with fine, sparse, rather short, cinereous pubescence. Lye finely 
granulate, rather broadly and deeply emarginate. Antenna lighter in color; 
the club 1.9 times as long as funicle, 1.32 times as long as wide, segments 2 
and 3 subequal in width, septa of sutures 1 and 2 feebly arcuate, subtransverse. 

Pronotum one-fourth longer than wide, widest on the posterior half, with 
the sides weakly arcuate posteriorly, very faintly constricted before the 
middle, moderately narrowly rounded in front, with the anterior portion 
extending well beyond the front of the head; anterior margin rather strongly, 
regularly serrate; anterior area strongly asperate; summit moderate, much 
lighter in color, anterior to the middle, with a moderately well-developed, 
transverse impression posterior to it; posterior area moderately shining, 
finely, sparsely punctulate, median longitudinal line rather broad, feebly 
elevated. 

Elytra subequal to pronotum in width, 1.8 as long as wide; the sides sub- 
parallel, rather narrowly rounded behind; surface shining; strial punctures 
minute, in fairly definite rows, each bearing an extremely minute hair (not 
usually visible) ; interspaces scarcely punctured on the disc, but on sides and 
declivity moderately punctured, with very fine erect hairs of moderate length. 
Declivity convex, the second interspace very feebly flattened. 

The female is similar, but the front of the head is more roughly punctured, 
has a median elevation, and the hairs are smaller. 


Pseudopityophthorus gracilus Blkm., described by the writer from Mis- 
sissippi, is on the average slightly more slender and more finely punctured 
than the average P. asperulus Lec. but apparently falls within the range of 
variation of this species. The specific name should bé submerged. 

The writer has studied specimens of this species from Maine, Massa- 
chusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, District of Columbia, West 
Virginia, North Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. The 
various species of Quercus occurring in this wide territory most commonly 
serve as hosts, but specimens have also been studied from Castanea dentata 
and Betula populifolia. 


Pseudopityophthorus fagi, new species 
Fig. 3. 
Description of the adult male—Dark reddish-brown; 1.37 mm. long, 3.0 times 
as long as wide. | 

Front of the head rather narrow, convex, slightly flattened below, the 
median area shining, impunctate or nearly so, densely punctured above and 
at the sides, and ornamented with rather long yellowish hairs which are 
strongly incurved and directed toward the center. Hye finely granulate, the 
inner line strongly emarginate. Antenna considerably lighter in color, club 
more than one-half longer than funicle, about one-third longer than wide, 
second and third segments subequal in width, septa sub-transverse. 

Pronotum 1.15 as long as wide, the sides subparallel, faintly constricted 
in front of the middle, broadly rounded in front; anterior margin slightly 
extended, with numerous, subequal, regular serrations; anterior area finely 
asperate; summit moderately elevated, with the transverse impression 
posterior to it feebly developed; posterior area feebly shining, finely but 
rather deeply punctured, median longitudinal line scarcely elevated. 

Elytra about equal in width to pronotum, 1.8 times as long as wide; the 


- MAY 19, 1931 BLACKMAN: PSEUDOPITYOPHTHORUS 229 


sides subparallel as far as the origin of the declivity, rather narrowly rounded 
behind; surface moderately shining, finely rugulose; strial punctures very 
fine, in slightly irregular rows; interspaces rugulose, very finely punctured. 
Declivity convex, very faintly flattened, interspaces 1 to 3 very minutely 
granulate-punctate. Elytral pubescence only slightly better developed on 
the declivity, more abundant than in asperulus, the hairs from the interspaces 
slightly longer, coarser and more erect, especially on the declivity. 

The female is similar in size and proportions, with the front of the head 
wider, convex, shining, and impunctate in the median area, closely and finely 
punctured at the sides and above, with a few inconspicuous hairs; declivital 
granules absent. 

Type.—Cat. No. 43423, U.S. N. M. 

Type, allotype, and four paratypes bear the labels—‘‘Hopk. W. Va. 7142 
aa;A.D. Hopkins, Collector; Midland Farm, Morgantown, W. Va.; Nov. 26, 
96; Fagus.”’ 

The type series of six specimens are all that have been seen by the writer. 


Pseudopityophthorus pubescens, new species 
Fig. 4. 
Description of the adult male—Dark reddish-brown, almost black, except 
the summit of the pronotum which is light reddish-brown; 1.8 mm. long; 
2.9 times as long as wide. 

Front of head plano-concave on an approximate circle extending from eye to 
eye, surface moderately shining, finely punctured, granulate-rugulose, more 
strongly and closely punctured at the periphery, and ornamented with a 
fringe of long, coarse, yellow hairs directed meso-ventrally and masking the 
frons. Hye rather finely granulate, moderately broadly and deeply emargi- 
nate on the inner line. Antenna much lighter in color, the club 1.65 longer 
than funicle, 1.32 longer than wide, third segment slightly wider than second 
and much wider than first; septa of sutures 1 and 2 subtransverse, weakly 
arcuate. 

Pronotum 1.13 times as long as wide, the sides on the posterior half weakly 
arcuate, feebly constricted in front of the middle, rather broadly rounded in 
front; anterior margin with numerous, very broad, low serrations; anterior 
area with approximately concentric rows of broad, low asperities; summit 
reddish-brown, moderately low, central in position, with a moderately strong, 
transverse impression posterior to it; posterior area moderately shining, with 
very fine, moderately close punctures; median longitudinal line not elevated; 
sides and anterior area with rather long upright hairs, those on the disc less 
conspicuous, sparser, shorter, and finer. 

Elytra subequal in width, one and three-fourth times as long as wide, the 
sides subparallel, moderately narrowly rounded behind; surface feebly 
shining, rugulose; the strial punctures very fine, in fairly definite rows, with 
short, reclinate, cinereous hairs; punctures of interspaces still more minute, 
more numerous, irregular in arrangement, giving origin to much longer, erect, 
fine hairs. Declivity convex, faintly impressed at each side of suture; strial 
hairs broad and more scalelike, the longer hairs shorter and thicker than on 
the dise and sides. 

The female is similar, but the front of the head is not so strongly and 
broadly flattened, the punctures and pubescence are more evenly distributed, 
and the hairs are shorter and much finer. 

Type.—Cat. No. 43424, U.S. N. M. 

Type and one paratype bear the labels—‘“‘Hopk. U.S., 3040; Tryon, N. C.; 


230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 10 


Castanea dentata; W. F. Fiske, Collector;” allotype and two paratypes— 
“Hopk. U.S. 2546-b; W. F. Fiske, Coll.; Tryon, N. C.; Dec. 16, ’03; Quercus 
rubra;’’ six paratypes—“‘Hopk. U. 8., 575; Carter Bridge, Va., White oak.” 


Pseudopityophthorus granulatus, new species 
Figs. 5 and 5a. 


Description of the adult male.—Very dark brown to black, with the summit of 
the pronotum light reddish-brown; 1.8 mm. long, 3.1 times as long as wide. 

Front of the head broadly flattened, feebly concave at the center, finely, 
moderately sparsely punctured, with a few, fine, moderately long, cinereous 
hairs, the frons more or less masked by a wisp of coarser, longer, bright yellow 
hairs originating from the top of the head and extending downward. Eye 
finely granulate, the inner line rather deeply emarginate. Antenna lighter in 
color, the club 1.6 times as long as the funicle, 1.4 times as long as wide, the 
second and third segments subequal in width, the septa subtransverse. 

Pronotum 1.1 times as long as wide, widest on the posterior half, the sides 
subparallel behind, scarcely at all constricted before the middle, moderately 
broadly rounded in front; the anterior margin with numerous subequal, fine, 
regular serrations; anterior area finely asperate; summit low, with scarcely 
any transverse depression posterior to it, bright reddish brown, contrasting 
sharply with the very dark brown to black of the rest of pronotum and elytra; 
posterior area brightly shining, moderately finely punctured, median impunc- 
tate line slightly elevated. 

Elytra about equal in width to pronotum, 1.9 times as long as wide; the 
sides subparallel as far back as the declivity, rather narrowly rounded behind; 
the surface moderately shining, finely rugulose; the strial punctures very 
minute, in regular rows, each bearing a short, semierect hair; the interspaces 
with the punctures more sparse, still more minute, the hairs longer, more 
erect, and coarser. Declivity convex, the suture scarcely elevated, with a 
sparse row of fine but distinct granules; second interspace slightly flattened, 
for the most part smooth, but with from two to four small granules in each; 
third interspace with four to six granules; the interstrial hairs only slightly 
longer on the declivity. | 

Type.—Cat. No. 48425, U.S. N. M. 

Type allotype, and 54 paratypes bear the labels—‘‘Prescott, N. F., Ariz., 
VI-10-30; M. W. Blackman collector; Hopk. U. 8. 20404 R,; Quercus:”’ 
one paratype—‘‘S. Rita Mts., 13-6, Ar.; coll. Hubbard and Schwarz.”’ 


The type series of more than 50 specimens does not show the usual second- | 


ary sexual differences. The frons in all of the specimens is flattened and 
ornamented as described above, with but little differences in the sculpture 
and pubescence. It would seem nearly certain, however, that both sexes are 
represented, as all but one specimen were taken by the writer from recently 
started burrows in oak twigs. Certain specimens are, however, slightly 
smaller, show slightly finer sculpture, have a smaller antennal club and 
slightly sparser frontal pubescence, and these are believed to be females. 


Pseudopityophthorus agrifoliae, new species 
Fig. 8. 
Description of the adult male-—Dark reddish-brown; 1.97 mm. long, 2.95 times 


as long as wide. 
Front of the head convex, slightly flattened below; with moderately fine, 


MAY 19, 1931 BLACKMAN: PSEUDOPITYOPHTHORUS 231 


deep punctures, with long, incurved, yellow, frontal hairs arising principally 
from the peripheral area at the sides and above. Hye finely granulate, 
moderately emarginate. Antenna much lighter in color, club 1.69 times as 
long as funicle, 1.3 times as long as wide; widest through the third segment, 
the second and first progressively narrower; septa subtransverse. 

Pronotum 1.06 times as long as wide, widest behind the middle, the sides 
decidedly arcuate, distinctly constricted in front of the middle, moderately 
broadly rounded in front; anterior margin with numerous, regular, low 
serrations, those at the sides at least as coarse as those near the middle; 
anterior area with numerous asperities in slightly irregular concentric rows, 
becoming much smaller toward the summit; summit slightly higher than in 
minutissimus, with the transverse impression stronger; posterior area mod- 
erately shining, closely, very finely punctured, and finely rugulose; median 
line rather feebly elevated. 

Elytra as wide as pronotum, 1.8 times as long as wide, with the sides sub- 
parallel as far back as the declivity, moderately rounded behind; surface 
moderately shining, finely rugulose; minutely and subregularly punctured, 
with indications of strial rows on the disc and sides, the pubescence cinereous, 
fine, short, often abraded. Declivity convex, suture feebly elevated; second 
interspace flattened, devoid of pubescence in the middle third, pubescence on 
declivity slightly longer. 

Type.—Cat. No. 43426, U.S. N. M. 

Type and two paratypes bear the labels—“‘Hopk. U.S., 112; A. D. Hopkins, 
coll.; Golden Gate Park, Cal.; Apr. 20, 1899; Quercus agrifolia.”’ 


Pseudopityophthorus minutissimus Zimm. 
Figs. 6 and 7. 


Description of the adult male—Dark reddish-brown; about 1.5 to 1.86 mm. 
long, 2.77 times as long as wide. 

Front of head very broadly plano-concave on a subcircular area extending 
from eye to eye, surface very finely and densely reticulate, the central portion 
impunctate, punctured peripherally, and ornamented with rather coarse, long, 
incurved yellow hairs; epistomal margin broadly emarginate. ye finely 
granulate, inner line emarginate. Antenna somewhat lighter in color, club 
1.75 times as long as funicle, 1.4 times as long as wide, segments 2 and 3 sub- 
equal in width, the first much narrower, septa of sutures 1 and 2 subtransverse. 

Pronotum slightly longer than wide, the sides behind subparallel, feebly 
arcuate, feebly constricted before the middle, rather broadly rounded in 
front; anterior margin with numerous sharp, regular serrations; anterior area 
strongly asperate, summit rather low, usually concolorous, with the transverse 
impression weak; posterior area subopaque to moderately shining, surface 
finely reticulate, very finely punctured, median longitudinal line feebly 
elevated. 

Elytra as wide as pronotum, 1.68 times as long as wide, the sides sub- 
parallel, moderately rounded behind; surface feebly shining, finely rugulose; 
irregularly, minutely punctured, with little evidence of arrangement in strial 
rows, each puncture bearing a fine, short, reclining, cinereous hair, often 
abraded. Declivity convex, the suture narrow and feebly elevated, faintly 
flattened at each side; pubescence not notably longer or coarser. 

The female is of about the same size and proportions, with the frontal 
serrations and asperities slightly finer; front of head not so widely or strongly 
flattened, finely and densely punctured and ornamented with very fine 
cinereous pubescence of moderate length, which is shorter and sparser in the 
median epistomal area. 


232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 10 


This species is widely distributed and varies considerably in various 
localities and hosts but a long series from one locality will often show nearly 
the entire range of variation. As a usual thing specimens from a colder 
climate seem to be larger as shown by a series from West Point, New York, 
and another from Ute Pass, Colorado. At West Point the maximum size of 
1.86 mm. is attained and the average of the series of 24 specimens is well 
above 1.7mm. _ In series from farther south only occasional specimens exceed 
1.6 mm. in length. : 

The writer has studied many hundreds of specimens from Massachusetts, 
Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Colorado, Maryland, District of 
Columbia, West Virginia, Virginia, Tennessee, Mississippi, North Carolina, 
and Georgia. This bark beetle breeds most commonly in the various species 
of Quercus, but specimens have also been studied from Castanea, Betula, 
Fagus, Carpinus, Ostrya, Hicoria, Cornus, Hammamelis, Amelanchier, and 
Pinus ) 

Pseudopityophthorus pulvereus, new species 
Figs. 9 and 10. 
Description of the adult male-—Dark reddish-brown; 1.67 mm. long, 2.76 
times as long as wide. 

Front of the head broadly plano-convex, weakly, transversely impressed 
above the epistomal margin, with a median shining callus, finely and closely 
punctured at the sides and above, and ornamented with long, rather coarse, 
yellow hairs masking the frons. Lye finely granulate, the inner line strongly 
emarginate. Antenna somewhat lighter in color, the club twice as long as 
wide, the second and third segments subequal in width, the septa mod- 
erately arcuate. 

Pronotum 1.1 times as long as wide, the sides subparallel on the posterior 
half, feebly constricted before the middle, broadly rounded in front; anterior 
margin with numerous, rather broad, low serrations; anterior area moderately 
asperate; summit low and the posterior transverse impression very weak; 
posterior area shining, very finely, rather sparsely punctulate, the median 
longitudinal line feebly elevated. 

Elytra about as wide as pronotum, 1.68 times as long as wide, the sides 
subparallel, moderately rounded behind; surface subopaque to feebly shining, 
finely rugulose, closely, irregularly, minutely punctured, with no evidence of 
strial rows; each puncture on the disc and sides bearing a fine, short, reclining 
hair. Declivity convex, the suture slightly elevated, the region of the second 
interspace distinctly impressed; pubescence flattened and more scalelike. 

The female is similar in size and proportions, but with the front of the head 
less strongly flattened, without a shining callus, finely, moderately closely 
punctured and ornamented with very fine, moderately long, cinereous hairs of 
nearly uniform length. | 

Type.—Cat. No. 43427, U.S.N.M. 

The type and three paratypes bear the labels—‘‘Hopk. U. 8. 5580; Nov. 11, 
07; J. L. Webb coll.; Chiracahua Reserve, Ariz.; Quercus: allotype—‘‘S. 
Rita Mts., 26.5, Ar.; coll. Hubbard and Schwarz.” 


Pseudopityophthorus pruinosus Hichh. 
(Pityophthorus querciperda Sz.) 


Figs. 13 and 14. 


Description of the adult male:.—Reddish-brown; 1.93 mm. long, 2.79 times as 
long as wide. 


may 19, 1931 BLACKMAN: PSEUDOPITYOPHTHORUS 233 


Front of head broadly flattened, the median area elevated, shining, im- 
punctate, densely punctured at sides and above, and ornamented with a 
dense fringe of long, moderately coarse, yellow, converging hairs which mask 
the frons. Hye finely granulate, narrowly emarginate. Antenna con- 
siderably lighter in color, the club 1.75 times as long as funicle, 1.37 times as 
long as wide, the third segment wider than second and nearly twice as wide as 
first, the septa strongly arcuate. 

Pronotum 1.1 times as long as wide, the sides subparallel, faintly arcuate 
behind, slightly constricted anterior to the middle; moderately broadly 
rounded in front; the anterior margin with numerous fine serrations; anterior 
area finely asperate, the asperities finer and reddish toward the summit, which 
is low; posterior area rather sparsely, finely punctured, moderately shining, 
nearly glabrous. 

Elytra scarcely wider than pronotum, the sides subparallel, broadly rounded 
behind, surface finely, irregularly, rather densely punctured, with the abun- 
dant pubescence short and stout, less abundant near suture and more slender 
toward the sides of the disc. Declivity convex, distinctly impressed at each 
side of the suture, the pubescence longer and more erect on all the interspaces 
except the second. | 

The female is similar in size, proportions, and general appearance, but with 
the front of the head more convex, finely, closely punctured, and ornamented 
with very slender, rather short, cinerous hairs. 

The above description is based partly upon a specimen from Eichhoff’s 
type series of P. prutnosus and partly upon the type series of P. querciperda 
Schwarz. In connection with these the author has studied hundreds of 
Specimens in the United States National Museum collection and in his 
private collection. 

This species is widely distributed over the eastern portion of the country 
from Michigan and New York to Texas and Florida. The writer has studied 
specimens from Michigan, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, District of 
Columbia, West Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
Georgia, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Florida. The various species of 
Quercus most commonly serve as the hosts, but specimens from Castanea, 
Fagus, Hicoria, Carpinus, Ostrya, Acer, and Pinus (?) have been examined, 
and all come within the limits of the species. 

Probably Pityophthorus tomentosus Eichh. should also be considered as a 
synonym of P. pruinosus Eichh. from which it was said by Eichoff to differ 
especially in the pronotum being sub-inflated posteriorly. Such variations 
are not uncommon in long series of pruinosus. 


Pseudopityophthorus yavapaii, new species 
Figs. 11 and 12. 
Description of the adult male-—Dark reddish-brown with the dise of pronotum 
cen that of elytra lighter in color; 2.23 mm. long, 2.69 times as long as 
wide. 

Front of the head broadly flattened from eye to eye, transversely impressed 
above the epistomal margin, with a median, shining, impunctate callus; the 
peripheral portion finely, closely punctured, and bearing hairs, those toward 
the center cinereous, rather fine, and of medium length, those from the outside, 


234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 10 


bright yellow, coarser, much longer, and converging over the frons so as to 
mask it. Hye finely granulate, the inner line deeply and broadly emarginate. 
Antenna much lighter in color; the club 1.75 times as long as funicle, 1.38 
times as long as wide; widest through the third segment, with the second and 
first progressively narrower; septa strongly arcuate. 

Pronotum slightly longer than wide, the sides subparallel, weakly arcuate 
behind, feebly constricted before the middle, broadly rounded in front; 
anterior margin with very low serrations (weaker than in pubipennis); 
anterior area with the numerous asperities very broad and low, summit low, 
and transverse impression weak; posterior area brightly shining, the punctures 
fine, more sparse than in pubzpennzs, the disc glabrous, the pubescence on the 
sides and in the asperate area short and much sparser than in pubipennis; 
median longitudinal line broad, not elevated. 

Elytra nearly equal to pronotum in width, 1.68 times as long as wide; the 
sides subparallel, broadly rounded behind; surface shining; finely, moderately 
closely, irregularly punctured (more coarsely and less densely than in pubi- 
pennis); the pubescence similar to. that of pubipennis but sparser. Declivity 
similar to pubipennis, but with the erect hairs longer, finer, and more numer- 
ous; the suture scarcely elevated, with a sparse row of minute granules. 

The females average slightly smaller than the males, are similar in general 
proportions and sculpture, but have the long hairs on the declivity not so 
well-developed; the front of the head is less broadly flattened, devoid of the 
median impunctate callus, but with faint indications of a median, longitudinal 
carina; the hairs are finer, shorter, and evenly distributed. 

Type.—Cat. No. 48428, U.S.N.M. 

Type, allotype, and 112 paratypes bear the labels—‘‘Prescott, N. F., 
Ariz. VI-10-30; M. W. Blackman, collector; Hopkins U. S. 20404-Q; Quer- 
cus: 19 paratypes—“Hopk. U. 8. 5580; J. L. Webb, collector; Chiricahua 
Reserve, Ariz.; Live oak:” two paratypes—‘‘Hopk. U.S. 7189; M. Chrisman, 
collector; Bred, 8-9-08:” three paratypes—‘‘Hopk. U. 8. 7706; M. Chrisman, 
collector; Sta. Catalina Mts., Ariz.; Black Jack:” two paratypes—‘‘S. Rita 
Mts., Ariz., 6-6; coll. Hubbard and Schwarz:’’ one paratype—‘‘Chiric. Mts., 
Ariz. 19-6; coll. Hubbard and Schwarz:’’ one paratype—‘‘Arizona, Morrison; 
coll. Hubbard and Schwarz.” | 


Pseudopityophthorus pubipennis Lec. 
Fig. 14. 


Description of the adult male-—Reddish-brown to nearly black; 2.1 to 2.38 mm. 
long, 2.75 times as long as wide. | | 

Front of head broadly flattened, with a median, shining, smooth callus, 
the periphery finely, densely punctured and ornamented with a dense fringe 
of long, rather coarse, yellow hairs which extend downward and converge, 
masking the frons. Hye finely granulate, the inner line deeply and widely 
emarginate. Antenna somewhat lighter in color, the club about twice as 
long as funicle, about one-third longer than wide, widest through the third 
segment, with the second and first progressively narrower; the septa arcuate. 

Pronotum slightly longer than wide, the sides rather weakly arcuate 
posteriorly, faintly constricted well before the middle, broadly rounded in 
front; anterior.margin with numerous rather broad low serrations; anterior 
area with numerous broad low asperities; summit low with only a weak 
transverse impression posterior to it; summit and dise much lighter in color; 
posterior area moderately shining, finely, moderately closely punctured with 
a few very short hairs (often abraded on the disc), the sides with longer hairs; 
median longitudinal line broad, scarcely elevated. 


may 19, 1931 BLACKMAN: PSEUDOPITYOPHTHORUS 235 


Elytra about equal in width, 1.66 times as long as wide, the sides sub- 
parallel, broadly rounded behind; surface feebly shining, irregularly, very 
finely and densely punctured, rather densely clothed with cinereous recumbent 
hairs, with a few, longer, more erect ones, becoming more numerous and longer 
on the declivity. Declivity convex, moderately abrupt, slightly depressed 
at each side of the suture. 

The female is similar in general proportions, but with the frons not so 
broadly flattened, and ornamented with rather fine cinereous hairs of moderate 
length, evenly distributed except on a small, shining, impunctate area just 
above the epistomal region. 


The foregoing description was prepared from specimens compared with 
LeConte’s type series. 

This species is western in its distribution, the type series having been 
collected in California. The writer has examined several hundreds of 
specimens from California, Oregon, and Washington. All are from the 
various western species of Quercus. 


Pseudopityophthorus opacicollis, new species 
Fig. 15. 
Description of adult male——Dark brown; 2.18 mm. long, 2.7 times as long as 
wide. 

Front of the head flattened from eye to eye, without median callus but with 
a median, impunctate, shining area just above the epistomal margin, the rest 
of the frons punctured and bearing hairs, those at outside much longer, 
coarse, and yellow, converging over and masking the frons. Eye finely 
granulate, rather deeply and widely emarginate. Antenna lighter in color, 
club more than twice as long as funicle, 1.5 times as long as wide; the third 
segment slightly wider than second, the first much narrower; septa strongly 
arcuate. 

Pronotum scarcely longer than wide, widest behind the middle, with the 
sides subparallel on the posterior half; strongly constricted before the middle, 
moderately rounded in front; anterior margin with numerous rather broad, 
low serrations; anterior area with approximately concentric rows of rather 
coarse asperities, which are gradually reduced to concentric rugae on the 
rather low summit; posterior area subopaque, closely, finely, and deeply 
punctured, slightly more coarsely and sparsely on the sides; median longi- 
tudinal line scarcely elevated behind, more strongly anteriorly in the broad, 
shallow, transverse impression; pubescence on anterior area and sides mod- 
erately short, that on the disc shorter and finer. 

Elytra similar in width to pronotum, 1.7 times as long as wide; the sides sub- 
parallel, moderately rounded behind; surface subopaque or feebly shining, 
rugulose; the punctures fine, rather dense, iregular, with no indications of 
strial lines on the disc; pubescence short, rather stout, reclining, with a very 
few, longer, more erect hairs on the suture and region of third interspace. 
Declivity convex, impressed at each side of the slightly elevated suture; suture 
and third interspace bearing longer, coarser, more erect hairs. 

The female is of similar proportions, but the front of the head is not so 
strongly flattened, the median area just above the epistomal margin shining 
and impunctate, rather closely and finely punctured, and ornamented with 
fine hairs of moderate length at the sides and above. 

This species is rather closely allied to both pubipennis Lec. and yavapazz, 


236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 10 


new species, but is readily distinguished by the shape and sculpture of the 
pronotum, the character of the longer elytral hairs, and by other differences 
brought out in the descriptions. 

Type.—Cat. No. 43429, U.'S.N.M. 

Type, allotype, and four paratypes bear the labels—‘‘Hopk. U. S. 5644; 
reared Sept. 1, 08; J. L. Webb, colr.; Sta. Catalina Mts. Ariz. ;Querecus:”’ 
five paratypes—“Hopk. U. 8S. 7199h, 4-15-08; M. Chrisman, colr.; Sta. 
Catalina Mts., Ariz.; Quercus:” 23 paratypes—“‘Hopk. U.S. 10366-b; reared 
Sept. 25, 18; M. Chrisman, colr.; Sta. Catalina Mts., Ariz.; Quercus emoryi:” 
three paratypes—“‘Hopk. U. 8. 10387; M. Chrisman ecolr.: Sta. Catalina 
Mts., Ariz.; Sept. 18-13, Quercus emoryi:’’ seven paratypes—‘‘Hopk. U.S. 
10519a; reared July 28, 713; M. Chrisman, colr.; Sta. Catalina Mts., Ariz.; 
Black jack and Buck acorn.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Buackman, M. W. Description oj eight new bark beetles from Mississippi. Miss. Agr. 
Exp. Sta., Tech. Bull. No. 10, pp. 1-16, 2 pls. 1921. 

BiackMan, M. W. Mississippi bark beetles. Miss. Agr. Exp. Sta., Tech. Bull. No. 11, 
130 pp., 18 pls. 1922. . 

Buackman, M. W. The genus Pityophthorus Hichh. in North America: A revistonal 
study of the Pityophthori, with descriptions of two new genera and seventy-one new 
species. Tech. Publ. No. 25. N. Y.S. Coll. Forestry, 182 pp., 11 pls. 1928. 

Fitrcu, A. Fourth report on the noxious. insects of New York. N.Y.State Agr. Soc. Ann. 
Rept. 1857, pp. 687-814. 1858. 

EicuuHorr, W. Ratio, descriptio, emendatio Tomicinorum. Mem. Soc. Roy. Sci., de 
Liege VIII, 531 pp. 5 pls. 1878. 

EicHuHorr, W., and Scuwarz, E. A. Remarks on the synonymy of some North American 
Scolytid beetles. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XVIII, pp. 605-610. 1896. 

Harris, T.W. Characteristics of some previously described North American Coleopterous 
insects and descriptions of others which appear to be new, in the collection of Mr. 
Abraham Halsey. Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Hartford. 1836. 

Hopkins, A. D. Sexual characters in Scolytidae. Canad. Ent., 26: 274-280. 1894. 

Hopxins, A. D. List of generic names and their type species in the Coleopterous super- 
family Scolytoidea. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 48: 115-136. 1914. 

Hopkins, A. D. A new genus of Scolytid beetles. This JouRNAL 5: 429-433. 1915. 

Hupparp, H. G., and Scuwarz, E. A. Coleoptera of Florida and Michigan. Proc. 
Amer. Phil. Soc., 17: 353-472 and 593-669. 1878. 

LeConte, J. L. Zoology: Report upon insects collected on the survey. Rept. Pac. R. R. 
Expl. & Survey Ins., No. 1, pp. 1-72, 2 pls. p. 59. 1860. 

LeConts, J. L. Appendix to Zimmerman’s synopsis of Scolytidae. Trans. Amer. Ent. 
Soc., 2: 150-178. 1868. 

LeContet, J.L. The Rhynchophora of America north of Mexico. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 
XV, No. 96, pp. 455. 1876. 

Packarp, A.S. Insects injurious to forest and shade trees. V. Rept. U.S. Ent. Comm., 
pp. 1-955. 1890. 

Scuwarz, E. A. Remarks on North American Scolytids. Ent. Amer., 2: 40-42. 1886. 

Scuowarz, E.A. Remarks. Ent. Soc. Wash. Proc.,1: 56. 1888. 

Swaine, J.M. Catalogue of the described Scolytidae of America north of Mexico. N.Y. 
State Mus., Bull. 134, pp. 75-194. 1909. 

Swaine, J. M. Canadian bark beetles. Dom. Ent. Br. Dept. Agr., Bull. 14, Pt. II, pp. 
1-143. 1918. 

ZIMMERMANN, C. Synopsis of the Scolytidae of America north of Mexico. Trans. Amer. 
Ent. Soc., 2: 141-149. 1868. 


MAY 19, 1931 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 237 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


630TH MEETING 


The 630th meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington was held 
on February 17, 1931, in room 42-43 of the U. S. National Museum, President 
Cooper, presiding. 

Program: Henry B. Co.tiins, JR., assistant curator of Ethnology, U.S. 
National Museum: Archaeological explorations on St. Lawrence Island, 
Alaska.—From June 20th to October 20th excavations were carried on at the 
sites of five abandoned Eskimo villages within a mile of Gambell, at the north- 
western extremity of St. Lawrence Island, Bering Sea. The villages are 
situated on a gravel spit which extends westward from Cape Chibukak 
(Sevuokok). A series of old beach lines shows the manner in which the 
spit was built up, and the positions of the several old villages in relation to 
these former beach lines and the present sea affords preliminary evidence of 
their respective antiquity. The oldest site was not known to the present 
Eskimos. It was on the lower slope of the mountain and was completely 
covered over with sod, moss, and rocks. It proved to be a site of pure Old 
Bering Sea Culture, a very old Eskimo culture previously known only from a 
relatively few elaborately decorated objects of ivory that had been found at 
various places in northern Alaska and northeastern Siberia. Situated on 
the gravel spit immediately below this old village and within the three earliest 
beach lines, was the next oldest site, known to the Eskimos as Miyowagha- 
meet. The lower strata of the midden yielded only Old Bering Sea material, 
but above it were found objects decorated in the Punuk style, which in 1928 
and 1929 had been recognized as an intermediate stage between the Old 
Bering Sea art and the modern. The next oldest villages, Ievoghiyogameet 
and Seklowaghyoget had only Punuk art; there was likewise evidence of a pro- 
gressive simplification in harpoon heads. At the latest site, which was not 
entirely abandoned until about 40 years ago, simplification of harpoon types 
continued, resulting finally in the modern form; art was also of the modern 
type. Ten houses were excavated, one or more at each old village, showing 
that three types of houses had been in use on St. Lawrence Island in pre- 
historic times. Additional evidence of the relation of the Thule and Old 
Bering Sea cultures was afforded by the finding of Thule harpoon heads only 
at the three latest villages. (Awthor’s Abstract.) 

Frank H.H. Roperts JR., Secretary. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


A. WETMORE has been elected an honorary member of the Societé Orthol- 
ogique et Mammalogique de France. 


The Langley Gold Medal for Aerodromics has been presented by the 
Regents of the Smithsonian Institution to Admiral EvELYN Byrp. 


Through a cooperative arrangement between the Physikalische-Technische 
Reichsanstalt and the National Bureau of Standards, an exchange of per- 
sonnel has been arranged for the purpose of promoting work on fundamental 


238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 10 


standards. Dr. F. HENNING of the Physikalische-Technische Reichsanstalt 
is studying at the Bureau of Standards the proposal of the Bureau thatthe 
emission from a black body at the freezing point of platinum be adopted as 
the primary standard of light. Dr. Hennrne will take part in measurements 
of the emission of a black body at the freezing point of platinum and also at 
the freezing point of iridium, if such an extension is found desirable. 

Dr. G. W. Vinat of the staff of the Bureau of Standards is proceeding to 
the Reichsanstalt to engage in intercomparisons of the national standards 
of electromotive force and in work on the improvement of standard cells. 


There have just been published the first three volumes of the series The 
Physics of the Earth as bulletins of the National Research Council by the Divi- 
sion of Physical Sciences with the cooperation of the Division of Geology and 
Geography and the American Geophysical Union. The volumes already 
published include Volcanology, The Figure of the Earth, and Meteorology. 
There is also in press a fourth volume of the series on The Age of the Earth, 
which will be issued about the middle of April. 


The submarine Nautitus, formerly the U. 8. 8. O-12, was christened by 
Lady WI.xkins at the Brooklyn Navy Yard on March 24, 1931, there being 
about 800 guests present to witness the ceremony. It will be recalled that 
this vessel is to be used by the Wilkins-Ellsworth Trans-Arctic Submarine 
Expedition during the coming summer. 


- With the cooperation of the Mountain States Telephone and Telegraph 
Company and the American Telephone and Telegraph Company, there is 
being installed at the Tucson Magnetic Observatory by the U. 8S. Coast 
and Geodetic Survey and the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the 
Carnegie Institution of Washington recording apparatus for measuring earth- 
currents. W. J. Roonry of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism is 
installing the apparatus at the Observatory. The two lines involved ex- 
tend northward from Tucson approximately 35 miles in an air-line to Mam- 
moth and eastward approximately 56 miles in an airline to Wilcox. 


The American Physical Society held meetings April 30 and May 1, 1931, 
at the Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., and May 2 in the National 
Academy-Research Council Building, Washington, D. C. 


The American Section of the International Scientific Radio Union held 
a meeting in the National Academy-Research Council Building, Washington, 
Dp. C.; on May de alGak: 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou,.21 JUNE 4, 1931 IN Ose alL 


GEOPHYSICS.—T dal phenomena in Long Island Sound EMBERT 
A. LeLacuevr, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. (Communi- 
cated by W. D. SuTcLIFFE.) 


The earliest tide observations on record in Long Island Sound were 
made in 1835. ‘Tidal currents were first observed in this waterway in 
1845. <A study of the observational data from 150 tide stations and 
over 300 current stations in this region has resulted in information 
concerning the tidal phenomena in this waterway which should prove 
to be of considerable value to the navigator, the scientist and the 
engineer. 

The tide in Long Island Sound is derived from that of the North 
Atlantic Ocean and, as inferred from the results of observations men- 
tioned above, consists primarily of a stationary wave. According to 
the stationary-wave theory of tides, advanced by R. A. Harris, re- 
gional oscillatory areas are located in various portions of the oceans as 
the origin of the dominant tides, these oscillations being set up and 
maintained by the periodic tidal forces of the sun and moon. There- 
fore, the tides of any region are caused by the stationary-wave oscilla- 
tion of that particular region and the tides of areas not capable of 
sustaining a stationary wave are caused by a progressive wave from an 
oscillating system of the open ocean.? 

For a body of water to support a stationary tidal wave its period of 
oscillation should be nearly the same as that of the tide, or approxi- 
mately 12 hours. If the period of oscillation for Long Island Sound be 


1 Received April 25, 1931. Presented before the Philosophical Society of Washington, 
April 11, 1931. 
2G. T. Rude, The figure of the earth. Bull. Nat. Research Council 78: 5. 1931. 


239 


240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 11 


_ Aen 
/gh 


g 
length of body of water or approximately 82 nautical miles (498,560 


feet), g = acceleration of gravity or 32.2 feet per second, and h = 
average (mean tide level) depth of water or 71 feet, a value of 41,720 
seconds, or 11.6 hours, is obtained. This approximates to the period 
of oscillation of the Gale. and the body of water will, UES, support 

a stationary wave. 

From the formula for a progressive tide wave, r = Vg/ gh, 11 which 
r = rate of tide progression, g = acceleration of gravity or 32.2 feet 
per second, and h = average (mean tide level) depth of water or 71 
feet, a value of 47.8 feet per second is obtained for the rate of progress 
of the tide wave. As the distance between the two extremities of the 
waterway is approximately 82 nautical miles, or 498,560 feet, the time 
that it should take for the tide wave to be propagated from Little Gull 
Island Light to Throgs Neck should be approximately 10,4380 seconds, 
or 2.9 hours. As determined from the Greenwich lunitidal intervals 
derived from observations at these tide stations, the actual times of 
propagation of high and low water, respectively, throughout Long 
Island Sound are 12 hours and 2% hours. 

From the above considerations it will be noted that the tide in Long 
Island Sound is produced by a combination of the stationary and pro- 
gressive types of tide wave, the former predominating. According to 
Harris, this progression is not due to a shoaling at the mouth or en- 
trance to the waterway, such as obtains in the Gulf of Maine and Bay 
of Fundy, but rather to a contraction. In addition to this contraction 
there are obstacles to the progression of the tide wave such as Fishers, 
Little Gull, Great Gull, and Plum Islands and numerous rocky shoals 
and reefs. | 

There is an earliness in the time of occurrence of high and low water 
along the north shore of Long Island Sound as compared with such 
phenomena along the south shore. From the vicinity of Eaton 
Point, L. I., westward, however, there is practically no difference in 
time of tide or range of tide along either shore of the sound. Likewise, 
there is an earliness in the time of occurrence of the tidal current along 
the north shore of the sound. The acceleration in the time of current, 
however, is due to the fact that the current generally occurs earlier in 
shoaler waters than in midchannel and the waters along the Connecti- 
cut shore are relatively considerably shoaler than those along the north 
coast of Long Island, especially in Eastern Long Island Sound. 


derived from the stationary-wave formula, T 


JUNE 4, 1931 LELACHEUR: TIDES IN LONG ISLAND SOUND 241 


The tide produced by a stationary wave should exhibit considerable 
increase in range throughout the waterway. This is true in Long 
Island Sound, the range increasing from approximately 23 feet at Little 
Gull Island Light to about 7% feet at the western end of the sound. 
From Eaton Point, L. I., westward, however, there is practically no 
difference in the range of tide. 

As is true in the Bay of Fundy, Delaware Bay, and other waterways, 
there is an increase in the range of tide on the right bank, or shore, of 
Long Island Sound with respect to the propagation of the tide wave. 
From the latter standpoint the northern shore of Long Island Sound is 
the right bank, or shore. The theoretical amount (in feet) by which 
3 vd sin } 

g 
approximately, in which v = velocity of water in knots, d = width of 
waterway in nautical miles, ¢ = latitude, and g = acceleration of grav- 
ity. At three cross-sections in Long Island Sound the following dif- 
ferences in range of tide were found: between Rocky Point, L. I., and 
Lynde Point, Conn., a theoretical difference of 0.3 foot and an actual 
difference of 0.2 foot; between Roanoke Point, L. I., and Sachem 
Head, Conn., a theoretical difference of 0.65 foot and an actual differ- 
ence of 0.6 foot; between Matinicock Point, L. I., and Parsonage 
Point, N. Y., a theoretical difference of 0.1 foot and an actual differ- 
ence of 0.1 foot. 

The tide in the Connecticut and Housatonic Rivers is primarily of 
the progressive-wave type. ‘Theoretically, it should require about 
4.0 hours for the propagation of the tide wave from Saybrook Break- 
water to Hartford, Conn., and 1.0 hour for the same phenomenon in 
the Housatonic River from Stratford to Shelton. By actual tidal 
observations, the times of propagation in these rivers between the 
localities mentioned above are, respectively, approximately 42 hours, 
and 0.95 hour. 

The progression of the tidal current is rapid over the 48-mile (nau- 
tical) stretch of Eastern Long Island Sound owing to the wide expanse 
and good depths of the waterway. From Stratford Shoal to Execu- 
tion Rocks in Western Long Island Sound, a distance of 30 nautical 
miles, about an hour is required for the progression of the current. In 
this stretch of the waterway the time of current is retarded consider- 
ably by the funnel shape of the waterway which narrows rapidly from 
a width of about 12 nautical miles, off Bridgeport, Conn., to about 25 
nautical miles off Execution Rocks. At the same time the waterway 


the ranges on the two banks of a tidal stream differ = 


242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 11 


rapidly shoals from depths of about 20 fathoms off Stratford Shoal to 
about 7 fathoms northeast of Execution Rocks. Over the 24-mile 
stretch from Execution Rocks to Hart Island Light the progression of 
the current 1s exceedingly slow, requiring nearly two hours. 

Although the tidal current, or horizontal movement of the water, 
accompanies the tide, or vertical rise and fall of the water, and is part 
of the same phenomenon, the results from observations show that there 
is considerable difference in time of occurrence of strength of flood 
eurrent and high water at most localities in this waterway. In fact, 
at the entrances to the bays and harbors along the northern and 
southern shores of the sound the maximum flood current occurs about 
the time of local mean-tide level, or approximately three hours before 
local high water. For example, at the entrances to Huntington Bay, 
Oyster Bay, Hempstead Bay and Coscob Harbor, strength of flood 
current occurs earlier than local high water by 2.3 hours, 2.8 hours, 
2.9 hours, and 3.1 hours, respectively. 

Owing to the presence of a stationary tide wave in Long Island 
Sound we should expect a large range of tide and a small current veloc- 
ity at the head of the waterway or western end of the sound and a 
small range of tide and considerable current velocities in The Race and 
Plum Gut at the eastern entrance to the sound. Such conditions 
actually obtain, a range of tide of 7% feet and current strength of 
about 2 knot occurring off Execution Rocks while in Plum Gut and 
The Race current velocities of 35 to 4 knots accompany a tide range of 
about 24 feet. 

The average (mean-tide level) depth of Long Island Sound is ap- 
proximately 12 fathoms and this depth would be sufficient to support 
a stationary tide wave of about 365 nautical miles in length. Meas- 
ured from the western end of Long Island Sound a north-and-south 
line one-fourth of this wave length from the head of the sound would lie 
about 10 miles east of Little Gull Island Light, or immediately east of 
Montauk Point, Long Island. Such a condition accounts primarily 
for the small tidal ranges and increased current velocities in The Race, 
Plum Gut, and the southern entrance to Block Island Sound off 
Montauk Point. 


JUNE 4, 1931 RICHARDSON AND WELLS: HEAT OF SOLUTION 243 


GEOLOGY.—The heat of solution of some potash minerals.1. L. T. 
RicHaRpDson and R. C. Wetts, U. 8. Geological Survey. 


The purpose of this paper is twofold—to consider whether measure- 
ments of the heat of solution may afford a rapid method of detecting 
potash minerals or estimating their percentage in gangue material, 
and to discuss whether the heat of solution may affect the geothermal 
gradient of such a region as the area of potash deposits in Texas and 
New Mexico. : 

Some years ago while visiting the plant of the American Trona 
Corporation, now the American Potash and Chemical Corporation, 
at Searles Lake, California, one of the writers was informed that the 
heat of solution was used in the plant as a control method for certain 
KCl-NaCl mixtures. Except for single salts few figures are given in 
the literature for the heat of solution of potash minerals. It accord- 
ingly seemed worth while to obtain some figures for these minerals. 
For this purpose measurements were first made with a few salts over a 
range of concentrations to find the most favorable conditions for a 
rapid method. 

A 5-gram portion of a ground sample of each salt was placed in a 
large test tube, surrounded by an air jacket, and its temperature was 
observed with a thermometer. A portion of water was brought to 
the same temperature, then poured on the sample, and the mixture 
stirred with the thermometer. The heat effect usually attained 
its maximum in 4 to 13 minutes. Correction was made if neces- 
sary for the drift of the temperature caused by exchange of heat with 
the environment during this interval. Table 1 shows the results. 
In those experiments in which there was not enough water to dissolve 
all the salt, the heat of solution was calculated for the gram molecule 
from the known solubility of the salt. 

It is seen from Table 1 that the temperature change is largely inde- 
pendent of the quantity of water as long as the salt is in excess. But 
on account of ease of stirring and uniformity of conditions, 25 grams of 
water, 5 grams of salt, and a short piece of a 35 mm. test tube were 
selected as the best combination for further work. 

When mixed salts are used, the heat effect obtained with a little 
water and a low percentage of KCl resembles that obtained with more 
water and a high percentage of KCl, and it is greater than that obtained 
with the same mixture of salts dissolved in more water. Both NaCl 
and KCl lower the temperature on dissolving in water. 


1 Received April 11, 1931. Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geo- 
logical Survey. 


244 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 11 


The results obtained with the minerals and some mixtures of min- 
erals and salts are given in Table 2. Owing to incomplete solution in 


TaBLE 1. Heat oF SOLUTION OF SoME SALTS (5-GRAM SAMPLE) © 


Final Change | Mols H2O | Molecular 


Diameter H20 Time | temper- | in tem- | per molof| heat of 


Salt of tube 


Gran) (grams) | (min.) ae HES (ees rae 

INGO epehata ieee ik, arate a 23 5 > 22.7 | —1.8 10 — 500 

ria Wie ea Dee dates ote ate al ‘ 10 os 212 | ees * —510 

ERE ACO, IRE SUM Piotdeons' ISEE Le a0 25 1 2328 1) = teW 16 —590 
FGCU aur Mihir toate. ct 13 5 2° —_ BE = 

PO Deas, CRUE MY 5 on am 16 i Ch tl ee Oe ce a 

CONOR Nan hee CRM te 7 er 20 es 18 — |-—10.6 — — 

EF LSEE ai ORAL ae REI a 23 “ + 10.2 | —11.4 12 — 3820 

Pimiaeiegee iPr: 1.8 acpi lie ky oy is 1 12.8 | —10.5 - — 3520 

Site is AR See Rasen oat of s 4 13.0 | —10.4 i — 3490 

NR Mee Aare se Mey Rertay 50 ml. . 5 —9.7 — — 

Se MARL Again Te Be Sey Ah een DB) 10 1 10.8 | —12.9 12 — 3740 

RL ORI ae eae cle tem Us os Ral 1 11.1 | —12.6 es — 3650 

Ry A TRA RARE ND ar nih am my 2 as rs 15 13 10.4 | —11.7 is — 3220 

Ea EER UR SEAT a SAIN ORM PIRESE AS 20 2 12.4 | —10.3 16 — 3800 

FEMALE PS LN Nt CE Cte Dk ee be ai if 24 13.9 | —10.4 4 — 3830 

POUR ie Me vabar il ls ety meus me 25 4 14.4 | —9.6 7A| — 3940 

POT ony 2 eee te cry Se Meee ie $ s 14.0 | —8.6 zi — 3530 

AGN) a eee EA aE 25 YY ‘ 16.0 | —9.0 ra — 3800 

Fes ek aay A Digan oats LMM cs 5 13 16.2 | —8.6 : — 3630 
TBO ee cha Coens 23 5 4 22) Nase 2 87 — 6320 

Te hl ale aN a el i oD 25 2 215. | 350 rane — 6600 
MeC@lo=GH Os scien bee 23 5 1 26.3 | +3.5 16 +914 
2 roNia C2 DIGI re eae i . 4 LG SSiu ln av — — 

i H SLA aM ge rea ot 10 | 1 14.0 | —7.5 — — 

os f pai est amas eure es es 5 14 14.5 | —7.0 — — 

1 bs Cae wiup tog) ak, Vb RAG COR 35 25 th 20.8 | —4.9 18 — 1900 
TTA ei aes termes 8 Sas ih o 4 16.2 | —7.5 20 — 3070 
Teh Oeics WU Rat ice a te Ns ayia ee ne 14 19.1 | —5.9 19 — 2330 
SOE. SOD OU eon ee a 4 19.7 | —38.5 18 — 1320 
ATOM arene Os ergy) cape oe % i ch 22 BN es 17 —950 
74 TSS Ae cee tae Sao ae aa eae ae ete Bn sf ie S 7 Ven Ca i 4 | —720 
Aarne O)S eee Go aaR ae 23 10 13 18.5 | —4.5 e — 


@ Stirring difficult. 
5 Beaker. 


some cases, as well as to lack of information in regard to the specific 
heat of the solutions, the figures for the molecular heat of solution must 


JUNE 4, 1931 RICHARDSON AND WELLS: HEAT OF SOLUTION 245 


be considered as somewhat preliminary, but they indicate the direction 
of the heat effect. The molecular heat of the salt-anhydrite mixtures 
refers to the soluble salt only. 


From Table 2 it appears that polyhalite (2CaSO,-MgS0O,-K,SO,-- 
2H.O), langbeinite (2M gSO,-K.SO,) and kainite (MgSO,- KC1-3H,O) 
evolve heat when mixed with water. Polyhalite is rather slowly de- 
composed, but the heat effect follows that of MgSO, rather than that 
of K.SO,. With carnallite (KCl-MgCl,-6H.O) the fall of tempera- 
ture caused by the KCl outweighs the rise due to MgCl,-6H,O, and 
a net cooling effect results. Although anhydrite alone shows no ap- 
preciable heat effect under these conditions a mixture of anhydrite 


TaBLE 2.—HeEat oF SoLuTION oF Some PotasH MINERALS (5-GRAM SAMPLE) 


Final Change | Mois H20 | Molecular 


Diameter)’ 10 Time | temper- | in tem- | per mol of| heat of 


Mineral ees (grams) | (min.) ae een dascolved a 
L002) a a 23 5 > 26.0 | +0.9 |. 35 (+834) 
LEAs Shah 35 rj 5 22.9 | +2.4 24 +5,600 
MES le ei ss, anh acs 4 25 - 24.0 | +1.2 39 +2 ,900 
SVC ES er % .25.0 | +1.0 35 +1,520 
COSC G | 23 5 i 16.8 | —5.9 8 —2,900 
Oo a As ee 35 25 * 21.5) —2.0 39 —3,300 
PMMA OVE ke x oc cw ewe « a oe x — —0.0 — — 
rd SUPE 5 @) Rt ae ee ee 10 13 13.8 | —9.1 17 —3,600 
Fsrey SOS a hy Se ae Eee BM 25 oy 20.7 | —4.8 42 —4,200 
LLG) Ste PLES ene ee en ee 10 1 18.8 | —4.1 Al —5,200 
oe OEE ae le aE ea 35 25 3 22.7 | —2.2 | 100 —4,900 
<< ¢ 
ae ea BE Ae * re S 21.6 | —2.0 27 —1,200 


and sylvite (KCl) seems to give a proportionately greater cooling effect 
than sylvite alone. This may be caused by the low specific heat of 
anhydrite (0.1753) or it may indicate a metathetical reaction. 

In view of the opposite directions of some of the heat effects, as 
well as variations caused by the proportions and kinds of minerals, it 
is obvious that the heat effect with an unknown mixture of potash 
minerals will not bear any simple relation to the K,O content. Some 
samples might have a positive heat of solution, some a negative, and 
some none. On the other hand, in specific mixtures the heat of solu- 
tion might give definite information—for example, in a mixture con- 
sisting only of sylvite and halite. 

In Table 3 some figures are given for two sections of core, mainly 


246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 11 


sylvite in halite, from Blanchard well No. 3 of the United States 
Potash Co., in Sec. 10, T.21 8., R.29 E., Eddy County, New Mexico. 
Ground samples of 3-inch portions were prepared, and the tests were 
made with 25 grams of water as given for langbeinite in Table 2. One 
section shows a fairly uniform change in the heat effect from top to 
bottom; the other shows extreme irregularity. Without more de- 
tailed information about each sample, calculations of the K.O con- 
tent are practically impossible. : 

The whole section from 791’ to 795’ averaged 3.58 per cent K,O, 
with increasing proportions of clay toward the bottom. For the 


TABLE 3.—F ALL IN TEMPERATURE RESULTING FROM SOLUTION OF SAMPLES OBTAINED 
FROM SUCCESSIVE 3-INCH PorTIONS OF Two SECTIONS OF CORE FROM 
BLANCHARD WEL No. 3 


Depth Fail Pa Dea Fall in eee 
791’0”—791'3” 3.7 794’9”—795'0” Lek 
791'3”—791'6” 2.9 
791'6”—791'9” 2.0 834’ 6” —834’9” 1.6 
791'9” —792'0” 1.6 834’9”—835'0” 19 
792'0”—792'3” 2.0 835’0”—835/3” 2.3 
792'3”—792’6” 1.2 835'3” —835/6” 2.1 
792'6”—792'9” 1.8 835'6”—835'9” aha 
792’9” —793’0” 1.4 835'9” —836’0” 2.9 
793'0”—793/3” We 7h 8360” —836'3” 2.0 
793'3”—793'6” 1.6 8363” —836’6” 2.4 
7936” —793'9” al: 836’ 6” —836'9” 1,6 
793'9”—794’0” 1.3 836’ 9” —837'0” 278 
794’0”—794'3” 12 837'0” —837'3” PTE 
794'3”—794'6” Leal 837'3” —837'6” 1.9 
794’6”—794'9” Ssh 837'6” —837'9” 2.0 


sample at 794’6” the insoluble matter was 16.03 per cent; the H,O 


at 110°, 2.62 per cent. For the sample at 794’9” the insoluble matter 
was 9.26 per cent; the H.O at 110°, 1.73 per cent. 

The section from 834'6” to 837'9” averaged 9.55 per cent K,O. As 
each tenth of a degree change in temperature corresponds to nearly 
3 per cent of KCl the variation in the material is very evident, but 
calculation of the total potash content of the section by addition of the 
13 separate results, taking 1.6° fall as representing zero per cent of 
KCl gives far too little total KCl, so that some factor has evidently 
not been given due consideration, though what this factor is has 
not yet been determined. 

The field of usefulness of the calorimetric method of analysis of 
potash minerals is therefore limited to certain special combinations, 


JUNE 4, 1931 — RICHARDSON AND WELLS: HEAT OF SOLUTION 247 


and even these will require careful standardization to give quantita- 
tive results. 

The second question of interest is the geologic application of the 
heat of solution. Lang? has discussed the low geothermal gradients 
in the area of western Texas and southeastern New Mexico known to 
be underlain by salt and anhydrite. Although he concludes that the 
thermal conductivities of the rocks are too poorly known to warrant 
any definite discussion of the problem, it may be of interest to consider 
further some of the factors that have been mentioned as responsible 
for the gradients. Radioactivity of the potassium minerals cannot 
be a major factor, or at least the heat effect thus produced is in the 
wrong direction Are water-soluble salts dissolving in ground water or 
deep solutions at a rate that would cause sufficient cooling to explain 
the low gradients? In the absence of any simple direct answer to 
this question it is proposed to make certain assumptions that appear 
to be too liberal and show that even so the corresponding effects would 
be insufficient to explain the gradients observed. 

For example, let us assume that soluble material is being dissolved 
at a depth at the same rate at which it is carried off in the surface run- 
off. This would mean that there would have to be some channel ways 
or permeable strata for the accession of fresh water and the escape of 
mineralized water, as simple calculation shows that mere diffusion of 
the salts from a depth of around 2000 feet would be insufficient to 
supply the soluble material in the run-off, even if there were enough 
pore space to insure a continuous aqueous medium.’ 

The quantity of dissolved matter removed annually by the Pecos, 
Brazos, and Colorado rivers,‘ which drain a part of the area underlain 
by salt, is of the following order: 


e 


Recosviniver near Comstock, “Texas... 0.000000 Je 2 ,400 ,000 tons 
Pemocmnver at Waco, Pexass. i... 2. case by. 2 ,070 ,000 tons 
ColocadopRiveraty Austin, Vexas. a. 20. sinter 2s 580 ,000 tons 


3,050 ,000 tons 
Unfortunately the proportion of potash in all of this material is 


2W.B.Lang. Note on temperature gradients in the Permian basin. This JOURNAL 
20: 121. 1980. 

3 Such solution as might occur owing to the lowering of the water-table in the earth 
on account of erosion at the surface or emergence of the area as a whole from sea level 
would not yield a significant heat effect. 

* Computed from data given in U. S. Geol. Survey water-supply papers. 


248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 11 


not known, so that it is necessary to pursue the inquiry in terms of 
sodium chloride and calcium sulphate, which are the principal con- 
stituents. The substitution of sodium chloride for potassium chlor- 
ide does not alter the essential conclusions, in spite of the fact that the 
solution of potassium chloride gives several times the cooling effect 
of that of the same weight of sodium chloride. It is estimated from 
analyses of the water that the total annual runoff includes at least 
1,300,000 tons of calcium sulphate and 2,800,000 tons of sodium 
chloride. Assuming that the calcium sulphate comes from the hy- 
dration and solution of anhydrite, rather than from gypsum, we have: 
as corresponding heat effects with a large excess of water the evolution 
of 38 X 10 calories for the solution of the anhydrite and an absorption 
of 100 x 10” calories for the solution of the sodium chloride, leaving a 
net absorption of about 62 x 10” calories. Here again, then, we 
encounter heat effects that are in opposite directions. Such compen- 
sating effects make it more difficult but oat not impossible to reach 
definite conclusions. 

As the area involved covers about 90,000 square miles, the net heat 
effect last mentioned reduces to an average of 0.027 calories per square 
centimeter, or, if concentrated in a single layer 1 cm. in thickness to 
0.027 calorie per cubic centimeter. But under a geothermal gradient 
of 0.000117° C. per cm.,> and with rock having the conductivity of 
anhydrite (0.0123), there would be annually a flow of 45 calories of 
heat per square centimeter normally escaping from the earth. It is 
obvious that the heat effect calculated for the solution of anhydrite 
and sodium chloride would be negligible as explaining the present geo- 
thermal gradients. Even if the assumed area of action were contracted 
to 1,000 square miles the heat of solution would be scarcely significant, 
amounting to less than 3 calories a year. Expressed differently, .to 
produce the present gradients sodium chloride would have to be dis- 
solved at depth at the rate of a layer nearly a centimeter thick each 
year, a rate that is incompatible with the known geologic age of the 
deposits. 

In other words, the figures indicate that the quantity of heat nor- 
mally flowing through the rocks of the earth’s crust is large in compari- 
son with the heat of any chemical changes that are likely to take place 
under nearly static conditions due to such transformations as hydra- 
tion, solution, carbonation, silicification, and replacement. 


> Equivalent to 1°F.in 159 feet. This gradient is based on the average for eight wells 


_ in the area under discussion, reported in Harth temperatures in oil fields, American Petro- 


leum Institute Bull. 205; computed by C. E. Van Orstrand, of the U.S. Geological Survey. 


JUNE 4, 1931 GOLDMAN: NEW DESERT FOXES 249 


MAMMALOGY.—Two new desert foxes... E. A. GoLDMAN, Biological 
Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


The accession of specimens in recent years has materially extended 
the known range of the desert foxes of the Vulpes macrotis group. 
Forms of this section of the genus occur in suitable areas from the 
Pacific coast east to the basin of Great Salt Lake, Utah, and the Rio 
Grande Valley in New Mexico and western Texas, and from the Snake 
River Valley, Idaho, south to southern Lower California, Sonora, 
and Chihuahua. Two hitherto unrecognized geographic races are 
described below. 


Vulpes macrotis arizonensis, subsp. nov. 
Arizona Long-eared Desert Fox 


Type.—From two miles south of Tule Tanks (near Mexican Boundary), 
Yuma County, Arizona. No. 202959, & adult, U. S. National Museum 
(Biological Survey collection), collected by E. A. Goldman, December 9, 
1913. Original number 22357. 

Distribution.—Desert region of southwestern Arizona and adjoining parts 
of Sonora. 

General characters —A small, light buffy subspecies with short pelage lack- 
ing much of the silver white usual in the group. Skull slender and delicate. 
Closely allied to Vulpes macrotis arsipus, but usually smaller, the winter 
pelage shorter, brush smaller, and dorsum less heavily overlaid with silvery 
white; skull differing in detail. Similar in general to V. m. neomexicana, 
but decidedly smaller and dentition much lighter. 

Color.—Type: Upper parts in general buffy brownish, purest on head, less 
pronounced along median line, paling to light ochraceous buff along flanks, 
the dorsum rather thinly overlaid with silvery white producing a somewhat 
grizzled effect; dorsal pelage with narrow subterminal white bands, and black 
tips so short and inconspicuous the general tone is scarcely affected; middle 
of face buffy grayish; chin, throat, median line of abdomen, inguinal region 
and inner sides of limbs nearly pure white; sides of neck, a narrow band across 
lower part of neck, anal region, sides of abdomen, and areas conspicuously 
invading upper parts behind shoulders light ochraceous buff; outer sides of 
forearms and hind legs, and external base of ears rich ochraceous tawny; 
feet whitish, the hind feet becoming light ochraceous buff on soles; sides of 
muzzle and lips, except anteriorly, dusky; outer sides of ears buffy-brownish, 
inner sides thinly clothed with white hairs; tail grayish, becoming light 
ochraceous buffy on basal half below, the tip black all around. 

Skull—Closely resembling skulls of small individuals of arsipus, but sides 
of brain-case converging in more nearly straight lines (tending more dis- 
tinctly to bulge outward anteriorly in arszpus) ; interpterygoid fossa narrower; 
anterior processes of frontals broader, more prolonged, meeting ascending 
branches of premaxillae (frontal processes separated from ascending branches 
of premaxillae by a distinct gap along maxillo-nasal suture in arszpus); 
auditory bullae small and dentition light much as in arszpus. Similar 


1 Received April 7, 1931. 


250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 11 


to that of neomexicana, but decidedly smaller, slenderer and more delicate; . 
dentition relatively lighter. | 

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 784 mm.; tail vertebrae, 315; hind 
foot (c.u.), 120. An adult male from Vicksburg, Arizona: 765; 300; 116. 
An adult female topotype: 735; 270; 115. An adult female from Yuma, 
Arizona: 712; 270; 117.5. Skull (type): Greatest length, 111.5; condylobasal 
length, 108.4; width of braincase, 42.5; zygomatic width, 56.4; least width 
of rostrum, 15.4; interorbital width, 21; maxillary toothrow (front of canine 
to back of last molar), 52.5; upper carnassial, crown length of outer side, 
10, crown width anteriorly, 4.3. 

Remarks.—V. m. arizonensis is closely allied to V. m. arsipus from whose 
range it appears to be separated by the barrier of the Colorado River. It 
appears to intergrade with V. m. neomexicana in southeastern Arizona. 
The reduction of the white over the dorsum in the winter pelage seems to be a 
differential external character worthy of note. 

Specomens examined.—Total number, 6, from Arizona as follows: Tacna, 
1; Tule Tanks (type locality), 2; Yuma, 2; Vicksburg, 1. 


Vulpes macrotis nevadensis subsp. nov. 
Nevada Long-eared Desert Fox 


Type.-—From Willow Creek Ranch, near Jungo, Humboldt County, 
Nevada. No. 213103, & adult, U.S. National Museum (Biological Survey 
collection), collected by Mike Gill, December 14, 1915. X catalogue number ~ 
il 32oar 

Distribution.—Desert regions from the Humboldt and Snake River valleys 
of northern Nevada and southwestern Idaho east to the basin of Great Salt 
Lake, Utah. 

General characters.—A subspecies of medium size with long, full, and com- 
paratively dark pelage. Skull with large, fully inflated braincase. Closely 
allied to V. m. arszpus, but less silvery white, the black tips of hairs more in 
evidence over dorsum, and cranial characters distinctive. Similar to V. m. 
neomexicana, but somewhat darker and skull different. 

Color.—Type: Upper parts in general a coarsely grizzled mixture, the 
dorsal pelage light brown below, the individual hairs with rather broad sub- 
terminal white bands and only moderately conspicuous black tips, becoming 
light ochraceous buff along flanks; middle of face grayish; chin, throat, median 
line of abdomen, inguinal region and inner sides of limbs nearly pure white; 
sides of neck, a narrow band across lower part of neck, anal region and sides © 
of abdomen light ochraceous buff; light areas behind shoulders ochraceous 
buffy, but rather inconspicuous; outer sides of forearms and hind legs and 
external base of ears rich ochraceous tawny; feet whitish, the hind feet 
becoming ochraceous buffy on soles; sides of muzzle and lips, except an- 
teriorly, dusky; outer sides of ears buffy brownish, inner sides thinly clothed 
with white hairs; tail grayish, heavily overlaid with dusky along median 
line near base above, washed with light ochraceous buff below, a black tip 
doubtless present in life, broken off. 

Skull—Similar to that of arstpus, but broader, more robust; braincase 
larger, more fully inflated; nasals usually broader, more abruptly tapering 
posteriorly; dentition similar; auditory bullae small as in arstpus. Compared 
with that of neomexicana the skull is somewhat smaller, but relatively broader; 
braincase broader, more fully inflated; auditory bullae smaller; dentition 
similar. 


_ JUNE 4, 1951 SHAMEL: BATS FROM THE BAHAMAS 251 


Measurements (no body measurements available).—Skull (type): Greatest 
length, 113.7; condylobasal length, 110; width of braincase, 45.6; zygomatic 
width, 62.8; least width of rostrum, 17; interorbital width, 22.5; maxillary 
toothrow (front of canine to back of last molar), 52.8; upper carnassial, crown 
length of outer side, 9.7, crown width anteriorly, 4.6. 

Remarks.—The range of V. m. nevadensis marks the northern limit of the 
V. macrotis group. ‘This subspecies is most closely allied to V. m. arsipus 
but is somewhat darker, less silvery whitish in color of upper parts and the 
skull is distinguished by the larger, more fully inflated braincase. 

Specimens examined.—Total number, 14, as follows: 

Idaho: Grandview (20 miles south), 1 (skull only). 
Nevada: Adelaide (near Golconda), 3 (skins only); Carson Sink (10 miles 
east of Fallon), 1 (skull only); Fallon (between Old River and Soda Lake), 

1 (skin only); Jungo (type locality), 5 (4 skins only); Sodaville, 1 (skin 

only); Sulphur Cow Creek, Humboldt County, 1 (skin only). 
Utah: Low, 2. 


MAMMALOGY.—Bats from the Bahamas.1. H. Harotp SHAMEL, 
U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by JoHN B. REESIDE, 
JR.) 

An interesting collection of bats was made during the summer of 
1930 in the Bahama Islands by Dr. Paul Bartsch, Curator of the 
Division of Mollusks in the U. 8. National Museum. ‘These speci- 
mens, 98 in number, are from islands hitherto unrepresented by any 
mammals in the national collection. 


ARTIBEUS JAMAICENSIS PARVIPES (Rehn) 


1902. Artibeus parvipes Rehn, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 54, p. 

639. December 8, 1902. 

Twenty-four specimens were taken on Great Inagua Island and four speci- 
mens at Abrahams Hill, Mariguana Island. This bat has hitherto been 
known only from the island of Cuba. Its capture in the Bahama Islands bears 
out, in part, a belief of Andersen,” the recent reviser of this genus, who said 
he believed that it would be found throughout the Bahamas and as far north 
as southern Florida. 


MACROTUS WATERHOUSII COMPRESSUS (Rehn) 


1904. Macrotus waterhousii compressus Rehn, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel- 

phia, vol. 56, p. 484. June 30, 1904. 

Three specimens collected at Salt Point, Jamaica Bay, Acklin Island. The 
specimens are perfectly typical of, and match in every detail those from the 
Island of New Providence, the type locality, and from Nassau Island, the 
only two known localities for this bat. 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re- 
ceived April 23, 1931. 

2K. ANDERSEN. A monograph of the Cheiroptera genera Uroderma, Enchisthenes, 
and Artibeus. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 262, 1908. 


252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 11 


Macrotus waterhousii heberfolium subsp. nov. 


Type.—Adult male in alcohol, No. 255651, U. 8. National Museum, collected 
by Dr. Paul Bartsch at Kingston, Providencialis Island, July 23, 1930. 

Diagnosis.—Larger than true M. waterhousiz, with darker, distinetly tri- 
color fur. 

Color—The fur and membranes are dark; fur smoky-gray at base; this 
area followed by a narrower band of whitish gray; the tips a rich coppery 
brown, but rather sparse; the gray shows through to such an extent that it is 
nearly the predominant color. 

Character—One outstanding external character is the broad, bluntly 
rounded nose leaf. In all other specimens of Macrotus examined the nose 
leaf. is rather slender and more acutely pointed. 

Skull.—The skull is like that of the typical form, except that there is no 
ridge on the occiput. This ridge is well developed in true M. waterhousii as a 
downward continuation of the occipital crest. The zygomatic breadth, inter- 
orbital breadth, greatest length of mandible, and breadth of braincase are 
slightly greater than these same measurements in skulls from Hispaniola. 

Measurements.—(Measurements in parentheses are the extremes of 5 speci- 
mens of Macrotus waterhousi waterhousit from Hispaniola.) Type: Head 
and body, 68.0; tail, 33.8 (24.2-32.5); tibia 24.0 (21.0—23.0); foot, 14.2 (11.0- 
12.6); forearm, 57.4 (54.0-55.2); thumb, 8.6; third metacarpal, 44.8 (42.0— 
43.3); fifth metacarpal, 47.2 (42.6-45.6); ear from meatus, 29.6 (26.2—28.6); 
ear from crown, 24.6 (21.2—23.2); width of ear, 18.5 (16.2-17.5); total length 
of skull, 26.6; zygomatic breadth at base of zygoma, 13.2 (11.8—-12.4) ; interor- 
bital constriction, 4.6 (4.2-4.5); breadth of braincase, 10.0 (9.2-9.6) ; greatest 
length of mandible, 18.4 (16.8-18.0); maxillary toothrow, 9.8. 


Only one specimen of this bat was secured in a cave on the island. I am 
informed by Doctor Bartsch that it was the only occupant of this cave. 

Its nearest relative is Macrotus waterhousii waterhousi from Hispaniola, as 
one would expect from the geographical position of its habitat. There are so 
many differences in its external measurements, and the color is so unlike that 
in any known Macrotus from the West Indies that there can be little doubt 
that it represents a new form. The fur on the back in other West Indian 
forms is bicolor, whitish basally with much paler brownish tips. 


Erophylla planifrons mariguanensis subsp. nov. 


Type.—Adult male in alcohol, No. 255593, U. S. National Museum, col- 
lected by Dr. Paul Bartsch at Abrahams Hill on Mariguana Island, July 20, 
1930. 

Diagnosis.—A larger, darker form with smaller teeth than true Erophylla 
planifrons. 

Color.—Fur at base gray, individual hairs tipped with auburn (Ridgway, 
1912). Ventral side drab-buff. The hairs at the base in L. planzfrons plani- 
frons are whitish when compared with the gray of specimens from Mariguana 
Island, and the tips of the hairs are much lighter. 

Skull.—The skull is like that of typical Hrophylla planifrons except for the 
smaller teeth and average greater length. 

After comparing eight skulls of this bat with the same number of true #. 
planifrons I find the following: maxillary toothrow, 8.2-8.8 as against 7.6— 
8.2; total length of skull, 24.8-26.4 as against 24.2-25.5; condylobasal length, 
22.2—-23.2 as against 20.8—22.2. 


JUNE 4, 1931 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 253 


Measurements.—Type: Head and body, 65.8; tail, 13.4; tibia 22.4; foot, 
15.0; forearm, 49.4; thumb, 12.0; third metacarpal, 41.5; fifth metacarpal, 
41.6; ear from meatus, 20.6; ear from crown, 16.0; width of ear, 12.2; total 
length of skull, 26.4; condylobasal length, 23.2; zygomatic breadth, 10.6; 
interorbital breadth, 4.8; breadth of braincase, 10.2; occipital depth, 8.8; 
greatest length of mandible, 17.4; maxillary toothrow, 8.8; breadth of rostrum 
at m?, 7.0; mandibular toothrow, 9.2. 


There were no dry skins, but eight specimens which had been in alcohol 
since July were dried, and compared with 18 skins of Hrophylla planifrons 
planifrons from Nassau and.New Providence. This comparison shows that 
the southern form is considerably darker. ‘There were three skins from Nas- 
sau and New Providence which approached those from Mariguana and East 
Caicos in color, but such resemblance may be expected in forms so closely re- 
lated. However, the two forms were distinct when laid out in nearby series. 

From among eight skulls of each of the two races all except three could be 
separated by the differences in the size of the teeth. 

Fifty specimens were examined from Abrahams Hill, Mariguana Island, 
and 16 specimens from Stubbs Guano Cave, East Caicos. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


Because of the generally adverse economic conditions throughout the world, 
the organization committee of the Sixteenth International Geological Congress 
has decided to postpone until June, 1933, the meeting of the Congress which 
had been scheduled for Washington in June, 1982. 


The Smithsonian Institution has received from the estate of the late JamMES 
ARTHUR somewhat more than $50,000 to establish a yearly lecture about the 
sun. The remainder of the income from this fund is to be devoted to re- © 
searches relating to the sun. 


At the annual meeting of the National Academy of Sciences, which met in 
Washington on April 27, 28, and 29, the following officers were elected: 


_ President, WittiamM WALLACE CAMPBELL, director emeritus of Lick 
Observatory. 

Vice-President, Davin Wuits, U. 8. Geological Survey. 

Home Secretary, FRED E. Wricut, Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie 
Institution of Washington. 

Members of the Council, W. B. Cannon, Harvard Medical School, and Rocrr 
ApAms, University of: Illinois. 


E. O. Uxricu, geologist of the U. 8S. Geological Survey, has been awarded 
the Mary Clark Thompson medal “‘for the most important services to geology 
and paleontology.” The presentation was made by RupOoLPH RUEDEMANN, 
state geologist of New York, at the annual dinner of the National Academy of 
Sciences. 


254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 11 


ApouFr Kwnopr, professor of geology at Yale University, a member of the 
AcaDEMy and a geologist of the Geological Survey, has been elected to mem- 
bership in the National Academy of Sciences. 


Prof. W. H. TwEnuHoFrEt of the University of Wisconsin has been elected 
chairman of the Division of Geology and Geography of the National Research 
Council, succeeding ARTHUR KrirH. He will take office July 1. 


The Alaskan Branch of the U. 8. Geological Survey is to make an intensive 
study of the mineral resources of the Alaskan Railroad this season, and will 
employ temporarily several additional geologists. R. W. Ricuarps of the 
Fuel Section and C. P. Ross, F. G. Wettis, J. C. Renn, and C. F. Parx of 
the Section of Metalliferous Deposits of the Geologic Branch have been trans- 
ferred to the Alaskan Branch for this purpose. J. M. Hinu and G. A. War- 
ING, former members of the geologic staff of the Survey, and J. C. Ray and 
RaupH Tuck have been appointed geologists for the Alaskan Railroad work. 
Prrry A. Davison, also, has been appointed junior geologist on the Alaskan 
Branch. 


Sir James H. Jeans, former secretary of the Royal Society of London and 
research associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, spoke on the 
subject Out in the depths of space at the National Museum on May 18, under 
the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. 


Pau. H. Onuser, for the past six years a member of the editorial staff of 
the Bureau of Biological Survey, succeeds Dr. Marcus BENJAMIN, retired, as 
editor of the National Museum. 


Roun E.. STEVENS has been appointed assistant chemist in the Geological 
Survey and has taken up the study of the chemistry relating to the origin of 
certain ore deposits. 


Serdang te ou E. s Hown, ee Avimal Industry. 
retary | CHARLES Tuom, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, 


TES: 
. << 
en . 
: . ie 


Geology. Orie heat of solution of some Oba ila 
R. C. WELLS ee soe esses eee este ets 


Screntiric Notes aNnp Ne ae 


SA reese oS ae SEE. . Wad ye. ae 


eal 


bac | 
in A . aa : 
- ty er 
3 ; } 
a2 Ve 
t : ~s et Nl 


Vou. 21 


WASH I NGTON 


C. Wrture Cooke 
U. 8S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


JUNE 19, 1931 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


CHARLES DRECHSLER 
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


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GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


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BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


Aanes Cuase J. R. Swanton 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY 


Roger C. WELLS 
CHEMICAL SOCIETY 


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Rsescieig-di IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN — 


BY THE 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 21 JUNE 19, 1931 No. 12 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY .—The spinel structure: An example of variate 
atom equipoints.: Tom. F. W. Barro and E. Posnsax, Geo- 
physical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. 

The commonly accepted interpretation of the spinel structure is in 
some respects not in harmony with the general results of crystal analy- 
sis. For instance, it shows a distinct discrepancy with the assumption, 
which is well based on Goldschmidt’s? extensive work, that the struc- 
ture of a crystal is largely determined by the ratio of sizes of its constit- 
uent atoms (or ions). A few examples will readily show that in the 
spinel structure, with the general chemical formula X Y2Ou., the radius 
ratio Rx: Ry does not seem to be the important factor in determining 
the structure. For example, in MgAl,O, we have Rye: Ra, = 1.37, in 
GpbeO. Roa: Re, = 1.54; K.Cd(CN)., Rca: Re = 0.78, and in 
Mg, TiO,, Ry:Ry, = 0.82. Phenacite, Be,SiO., has a ratio Rgi:Rge = 
1.15 which lies well between the aforementioned values, nevertheless 
this mineral crystallizes with trigonal symmetry, and not as a spinel. 

Another, and very disturbing feature of the spinel structure is that 
the law of constant atomic radii seems to be violated. For example, 
in the common spinel Mg has an apparent radius of 0.42 A, whereas it 
is supposed to have the value of 0.78 A—an enormous difference. In 
this connection one might think of the possibility of the spinel structure 
forming an atom lattice instead of an ion lattice. However, the com- 
parison of the differences of the spacings of various spinels which have 
one metal common (like MgAl,0.,—MgFe.0.; MgFe.0.—CdFe20,) 
shows definitely that we are dealing here with an ion lattice. 

Examinations of the X-ray data show conclusively that the only 
possible arrangements of the ions within the unit cell are (8f), (16c), and 


1 Received May 16, 1931. 
2 Cf. V.M. Goupscumipt. Geochem. Verteilungsgesetze VII, Vid. Akad. Oslo 1926, 
No. 2. 


255 


256 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 12 


(32b). The parameter,? wu, of the oxygen ions had been determined and 
found to have a value close to 2. By choosing another value for the 
parameter it appeared possible to get interatomic distances that lead 
to more reasonable radii for the cations. However, re-calculations of 
the intensities show that it is hardly possible to move the positions of 
the oxygen atoms. In the case of MgAl.O,, for instance, the value for 
u appears to be good to less than + 0.01. 

The only assumption which leads to reasonable distances eanden 
oxygen and metal and at the same time is consistent with the observed 
intensity data is that the 16 equivalent positions in the unit cell are not 
occupied by chemically equivalent ions. Instead of having Mg in (8f) 
and Al in (16c) the spinel has 8 Al-ions in (8f) and 8 Al-ions + 8 Mg- 
ions in (16c).4 (This arrangement will be expressed further on by 
writing AlMgAIO, instead of MgA1.O,.) 

It was possible to test this assumption on spinels in which the two 
kinds of cations show a sufficient difference in their scattering power for 
X-rays. As such magnesium ferrite and magnesium galliate were 
selected. The results of the intensity calculations are given in Table 1 
and prove that magnesium galliate and magnesium ferrite must have 
the structures GaMgGaO, and FeMegFeO,; all the decisive data are in 
good agreement with this assumption, whereas they are quite incom- 
patible with the formerly accepted spinel structure. 

It seems to us that the demonstration of this new spinel structure is 
of more than ordinary interest. It brings forward a new principle in 
crystal analysis, or rather it causes us to give up the old idea that struc- 
turally equivalent positions have to be occupied by chemically equiva- 
lent atoms. While in the case of mixed crystals it has long been known 
that chemically different atoms may enter into structurally equivalent 
positions, no extension of this idea to pure compounds had previously 
been considered necessary.> Our study of the structure of spinels thus 


3 Determined on spinel and magnetite by W. H. Braae (Phil. Mag. 30, 305, 1915), and 
S. Nishikawa (Proc. Math. Phys. Soc. Tokyo 8, 199, 1915), A. Claasen (Proc. Phys. Soc. 
London 38, 482, 1926); on silver molybdate by R. W. G. Wyckoff and on various com- 
plex cyanides by R. G. Dickinson (Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. 44, 1922, pp. 1994 and 774 
respeceinely)- 

4 If one assumes that u = 0.378, the apparent radius of the Al-ions in (8f) 1 is 0. 46 A, 
while Al*** in coérdination number 4 should have a value of from 0.44 to 0.47 A. The 
average radius of the Mg + Al-ions in (16c) is 0.67 A, while the radius Mg + AI in co- 

2 
ordination number 6 should be 0.675 A. 
5 A somewhat similar idea has been proposed by A. F. Westgren and G. Phragmén 
(Faraday Society, Crystal structure and chemical constitution, p. 382, 1929) to explain 
the structure of intermetallic compounds. 


JUNE 19, 1931 BARTH AND POSNJAK: THE SPINEL STRUCTURE 207 


establishes a more fundamental application of this principle. A unit 
cell which contains different atoms at structurally equivalent points 


TABLE 1.2. INTENSITY Data FROM MAGNESIUM GALLIATE AND MAGNESIUM FERRITE 


Magnesium galliate Magnesium ferrite 
Indices Calculated : Calculated 
Se Observed > _____. Observed 
MgGar20s Ga(MgGa)Os MgFe204 Fe(MgFe) Os 
(11) i 0.1 0.5— 6 0.2 0.5 
(113) 10 10 10 10 10 10 
(133) 3 0 0 3 0 0 
(333) 
(11 a 6 6 7 6 6 7 
(135) 4 0 0 3 0 0 
(335) 3 3 2 3 3 2, 
(155) 
(117) 2 0 0 2 0 0 
(355)| 6 6 4 6 6 4 
(137) f 
(555) 
(157) 3 3 Pe 3 3 3 
(357) 1 0 0 1 0 0 
(159) 
(377) 3 3 it 3 3 1! 
T° 4/ A+ B2 


a The intensities were calculated according to the formula I = disregard- 


h2 _ k2 +- ]2 

ing the variation of scattering with the angle. The scattering power of the atoms has 
been taken directly proportional to the number of electrons, i.e. the atomic number 
minus the valence. Only faces with all indices odd are shown in the table; for such faces 
the expression for VV A? + B? becomes 4v/2-X + 8-Yif one or all three of the indices is 3 
(mod. 8) and 4y/2.X — 8-Yif one or all three indices is 1 (mod.8). (X and Y stand for 
the atoms in (8f) and (16c) respectively, and the parameter, u, of the oxygen atoms is 
taken as 0.375.) All other faces give approximately the same intensities for either 
arrangement, so it seemed unnecessary to incorporate them in this table. 


may be referred to as a cell with variate atoms in equivalent positions; 
or, to give it a short name, a cell with variate atom equipoints. The 


258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 12 


introduction of this conception falls in line with, and extends Mach- 
atschki’s® ideas of the structures of silicates. 

The importance of this principle for crystal analysis may, e.g., be 
seen from Raaz’s paper’ on the structure of gehlenite. In working out 
this structure he used the formula Ca,Al,Si0O;, whereas its relation to 
akermanite, Ca,.MgSi.O;, would suggest that its structure possesses 
variate atom equipoints: Ca,Al(AlS8i)O;; in this latter case the 4e 
positions of D*,, would be alternately occupied by Al and Si-ions. All 
chemical evidence is in agreement with this arrangement. and the only 
reason for Raaz’s unwillingness to accept it was the fact that this 
assumption would be contrary to the traditional application of the 
theory of crystal analysis. 


SUMMARY 


Comparisons of the observed and calculated intensities on the 
spinels, magnesium ferrite and magnesium galliate, show that instead 
of having Mg in (8f) and Al in (16c), 8 Al-ions occupy positions in (8f) 
and 8 Al-ions + 8 Mg-ions are in (16c). The possibility that different 
atoms partly replace one another in structurally equivalent positions of 
a crystal is in all likelihood not confined to spinels, but very likely is a 
more general phenomenon. It is proposed to call unit cells of such 
crystals, cells with variate atom equipoints. 


6 Cf. F. Machatschki. Zeitschr. f. Krist. 71,219. 1929; Centralblatt f. Min. Abt. A, 
1930, 279. | 
7F. Raaz. Sitzungsberichte Akad. Wiss. Wien, Abt. 1, 139,645. 1930. 


JUNE 19, 1931 SCHWARTZ: RESISTANCE TO NEMATODES 259 


ZOOLOGY.—Resistance of rats to superinfections with a nematode, 
Nippostrongylus muris, and an apparently similar resistance of 
horses to superinfection with nematodes... BENJAMIN SCHWARTZ, 
JospepH FE. AuicaTa and JoHN T. Lucker, Bureau of Animal 
Industry, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. 

For the past twenty-five years parasitologists have been seeking 
evidence in regard to immunity in parasitic infections. By means of 
the known immunological technic developed in connection with the 
study of bacterial and related diseases, it has been possible to demon- 
strate more or less specific antibodies in certain diseases caused by 
metazoan parasites, particularly in schistosomiasis, hydatid disease, 
trichinosis, filariasis, and some of the worm infestations of the gastro- 
intestinal tract of various mammals. While the evidence obtained in 
the course of these investigations is of interest and of value, and shows 
that certain substances eliminated by the parasites involved are prob- 
ably absorbed by the host with the resultant elaboration of antibodies, 
it falls short of explaining how the host actually copes with the para- 
sites themselves, particularly in cases of superinfections. More 
recently a number of parasitologists have presented data, based on 
laboratory investigations, which appear to indicate that following the 
successive administration of infective nematode larvae to susceptible 
host animals, the latter ultimately become entirely refractory, or nearly 
so, to an infection with the particular parasites involved. The evi- 
dence presented in connection with the latter investigations has been 
in the main indirect, and has been based, for the most part, on informa- 
tion derived from quantitative studies in the form of counts, made at 
regular intervals of the number of worm eggs in definite amounts of the 
feces of experimentally infected animals, the rise and fall in the inten- 
sity of the parasitic infestations being judged by the relative number of 
parasite eggs present in definite quantities of feces. In the opinion of 
the present writers, however, evidence of this sort has definite useful- 
ness and value, and also definite limitations. It fails to give an accu- 
rate index to the total number of worms harbored by a host, since the 
evidence of egg counts takes cognizance only of female worms which 
have attained fertile maturity, and gives no direct or positive informa- 
tion in regard to males, immature worms, or senile females, which might 
be present in the host in considerable numbers. This limitation has 
been pointed out from time to time in the past, but even yet is not 
always taken into consideration or kept in mind. The significance 


1 Received May 20, 1931. 


260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 12 


of the possible presence of agamic parasites in a state of arrested 
development has been entirely overlooked in the past. 

The writers’ investigations on the life history of Nippostrongylus 
muris, a nematode parasitic in the small intestine of rats, and more or 
less closely related to pathogenic trichostrongyles occurring in domestic 
meat-food animals, have already brought to light facts which show 
rather conclusively that following the recovery from a single infection 
with this nematode, under rigorous experimental conditions which have 
precluded extraneous infections with this and with other parasites, 
the rat host is already in a state of relative resistance to superinfection. 
If exposed to a second infection or to subsequent infections, the 
development of the parasites is considerably retarded, but agamic 
worms commonly remain in the host and may ultimately come to fertile 
maturity, apparently a few ata time. 

As first shown by Yokagawa in 1925, the infective larvae of Nippo- 
strongylus muris may enter the host through the skin and be carried by 
the circulation to the lungs. In these organs the larvae develop for a 
time and then migrate to the small intestine in a manner similar to that 
of various species of human and carnivore hookworms, species of 
ascarids, and other intestinal parasites which undergo part of their 
development in the lungs. In about six to seven days after experi- 
mental infection with NV. muris, the worm eggs appear in the feces of 
infested rats. The writers’ investigations have shown that once the 
the eggs have appeared in the feces, their production, as followed by 
microscopic examination of the feces, rises rather rapidly at first, then 
declines gradually, and finally the eggs disappear from the feces alto- 
gether. Experimentally infected rats, killed from 13 to 16 days follow- 
ing infection, and about 7 to 10 days after the first appearance of eggs 
in the feces, contained fully grown, sexually mature worms, the females 
being, as a rule, at the peak of egg production, but sometimes already 
on the decline in production. Occasionally a few larvae, usually from 
three to five, have been discovered in the lungs of such rats. These 
larvae are worms which, for one reason or another, have failed to get 
into the intestine and have, therefore, been unable to develop beyaed 
the stage which these parasites can attain in the lungs. 

In experimental rats killed from 13 to 16 days following the first 
superinfection, subsequent to the disappearance from the feces of eggs 
resulting from the previous infection, the parasite picture discovered 
at necropsy was quite different from that noted at the corresponding 
stage in the course of the first infection. In some rats many of the 
worms from the second infection, in some cases 50 per cent or more, 


JUNE 19, 19381 SCHWARTZ: RESISTANCE TO NEMATODES 261 


were still in the lungs as third-stage larvae; the worms recovered from 
the intestine were, for the most part, not fully grown and many of the 
females had not yet attained the egg-laying stage. Before being killed, 
the rats in question showed an insignificant number of eggs in the 
feces as compared to the large number of eggs present at a correspond- 
ing stage of development in the first infection. At necropsy, the egg- 
producing females from the second infection were found to contain 
relatively few eggs in the uterus. 

While direct evidence based on the finding of worms post-mortem, 
about two weeks after a second or a third superinfection of rats, is as 
yet unavailable, indirect evidence, based on the period required for 
eggs to appear in the feces following such successive infections, indi- 
cates that the prepatent period increases directly with the number of 
times that these host animals are exposed to re-infection. This is 
interpreted as indicating that with successive infections the host builds 
up an increasing resistance of a sort resulting in retardation of the 
growth and the development of these nematodes, possibly by elaborat- 
ing, either throughout the body or, what is, perhaps, more probable, in 
the tissues and organs with which these worms come in contact, a specific 
growth-inhibiting substance or substances which retard the develop- 
ment of the parasites. So far as the writers are aware, this is the first 
experimental demonstration of what appears to be the development by 
the host of a growth-inhibiting mechanism for keeping in check the 
development and propagation of a parasitic nematode. 

In connection with an investigation on the prevalence in horses of 
species of Habronema, heteroxeneous nematodes which are transmitted 
by flies, it was discovered that despite the absence of flies during the 
the winter months in the vicinity of the District of Columbia, agamic 
forms of Habronema species, in many cases no further advanced in 
development than that attained in their intermediate fly hosts, were 
present in the stomachs of horses during the months of December, 
1930, to March, 1931 inclusive.2 In the light of the experimental 
results obtained with NV. muris, the writers interpret these findings in 
horses as probably falling within the same category of resistance as 
that discovered in connection with the superinfection experiments with 
the rat trichostrongyle discussed in this paper. It is not improbable 
that in cases of superinfections with other species of nematodes a 
growth-retarding mechanism, similar to that discovered in rats infected 
with Nippostrongylus muris, will be found. 


2 These data were collected by Mr. Allan McIntosh, Assistant Zoologist, Bureau of 
Animal Industry. 


262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 12 


ZOOLOGY.—A new species of Pinnotherid crab from Costa Rica.! 
Mary J. Ratusun, United States National Museum. ; 
In a collection of Costa Rican crabs recently sent to the United 
States National Museum by Prof. Manuel Valerio of San José, there 
is a Pinna different from any previously obtained. 


Fig.1. Pinnizxavalerii # holotype, carapace 9.8 mm. wide, dorsal and ventral views. 


Pinnixa valerii, new species 


Figures 1 and 2 


Carapace and appendages covered with a short close pile. Carapace nearly 
twice as wide as long; anterior and anterolateral margins together forming a 
strongly convex arch, reaching to the line of the widest part of the cardiac 


1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 
Received May 4, 1931. 


JUNE 19, 1931 RATHBUN: NEW COSTA RICAN CRAB 263 


region and meeting posterior margin at almost a right angle; posterior margin 
transverse at its middle for less than 4 of carapace width. Gastric and cardiac 
regions strongly delimited, the former the wider; three longitudinal, narrow 
gastric furrows, one median, short, reaching only half way back; branchial 
region crossed by five obliquely transverse furrows, the hinder one deep and 
parallel to posterior margin. A short dorsal hepatic furrow is directed inward 
and forward. Eyes minute. Fronto-orbital width less than 4+ width of cara- 
pace; below the level of the orbit the carapace is vertical; the antero-lateral 
margin is a smooth blunt ridge, separated from the sharp pterygostomian 
ridge by a broad depression. 

Chelipeds small, about as long as first leg, and fringed with long hair on 
upper margin and along middle of inner surface of carpus and manus. Chelae 


Fig. 2. Left outer maxilliped of Pinniza valerii & holotype, enlarged. 


thin, sharp-edged; palm nearly as high as long; fingers narrow, longitudinal, 
acuminate, gaping in proximal two-thirds. Legs stout, first pair with remark- 
ably short dactyl; third pair much stouter than the others, 14 times as long as 
second pair; merus widest at middle, narrowing toward either end. Male 
abdomen very long and narrow, overlapping buccal cavity; third, fourth and 
fifth segments regularly tapering, fourth and fifth equally long, sixth long and 
narrow, with parallel sides, seventh suboblong. Female abdomen, second to 
sixth segments subcircular, sixth rapidly tapering, seventh short with arcuate 
tip. 

Male, length of carapace 5.3, width of same 9.8, width of front and orbits 
2.3, of transverse posterior margin 2.8 mm. 

Type-locality—Isla San Lucas, west coast of Costa Rica; Jan. 15, 1930; 1 
male holotype, 1 female, Cat No. 63854, United States National Museum. 


264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 12 


ENTOMOLOGY .—A _ revisional study of the genus Gnathotrichus 
Evchhoff in North America. M. W. Buackman, Bureau of Ento- 
mology, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. (Communicated by 
Harotp MorRRISON.) 


This is the third of a series of revisional studies of Pityophthorus 
Eichh. and its allies in North America. The one remaining genus of 
the group, Conophthorus Hopk., will perhaps serve as the subject of a 
future study. 

Gnathotrichus materiarius Fitch was described by Fitch in 1858 under 
the name Tomicus materiarius. In 1868 Zimmerman referred mate- 
riarius Fitch to the genus Crypturgus Er. and in the appendix to this 
same paper LeConte (1868) placed it in the genus Cryphalus Er. along 
with retusus, sulcatus, and asperulus described as new, and various 
other species now included in Pityophthorus Eichh., Pseudomityophtho- 
rus Sw., etc. 

Hichhoff in 1868 erected the monobasic genus Gnathotrichus to in- 
clude G. corthyloides described by him asnew. Ina footnote, however, 
he expressed his belief that this species might be identical with Tomicus 
matervarius Fitch. 

LeConte (1876) placed corthyloides Eichh. as asynonym of materiarius 
Fitch, which he included, along with the other North American forms 
described by him, as one division of the genus Pityophthorus Eichh. 

Eichhoff (1878) in his “Ratio Tomicinorum”’ placed corthyloides as 
a Synonym of materiarius Fitch, the type of the genus thus becoming 
Gnathotrichus |corthyloides] materiarius Fitch. In this same great 
work Ejichhoff described three additional species, G. longipennis, G. 
consobrinus, and G. nanus, all from Chile, and included a full rede- 
scription of the genus. 

Blandford (1895) redescribed the genus and added the two new spe- 
cies, G. consentaneus and G. bituberculatus from Central America. 

Hopkins (1902) referred to his manuscript species, occidentalis, 
which apparently has never been described, and in 1905 described G. 
mitidifrons Hopk. from Mexico. 

Thus the species listed by Hagedorn (1910) are 11 in number, but 
occidentalis MS Hopk. has never been described, and asperulus Lec. 
was correctly placed by Eichhoff (1879) in the section of the genus 
Pityophthorus Eichh. which was later removed by Swaine (1918) to 
form the new genus Pseudopityophthorus Sw. 


1 Received April 16, 1931. 


JUNE 19, 1931 BLACKMAN: REVISION OF GNATHOTRICHUS 265 


Swaine (1918) included in the North American members of the genus . 
Gnathotrichus not only materiarius Fitch, retusus Lec., and sulcatus 
Lec., but also asperulus Lec., which should have been placed under 
Pseudopityophthorus Sw. 


REVISED DESCRIPTION OF THE GENUS GNATHOTRICHUS EICHHOFF 


Body form cylindrical, elongate, more than three times as long as wide; the 
surface very smooth, finely reticulate, varying from subopaque to brightly 
shining with the punctures varying from fine to minute. 

Head with the front convex, either punctured, with the median area ele- 
vated, or convergently aciculate, with a few moderate hairs; the antenna 
with the club more than one and a half times as long as the five-jointed funicle, 
with segments 2 and 3 subequal in width, and sutures 1 and 2 septate, the 
females with long curved hairs on the outer border of both club and funicle; 
the mouth parts with slender hairs; the pregula either normal or protuberant. 

Pronotum with the sides not constricted before the middle; the anterior 
area with numerous very broad and low asperities; the summit anterior to the 
middle and marked by a sharply elevated, tranverse carina; the basal border 
without a well-developed, beaded margin, although traces of this are to be 
found in some specimens of all of the North American species. 

Elytra finely rugulose, with the strial punctures fine to minute and in 
definite rows, glabrous or subglabrous except on the posterior third; declivity 
weakly to strongly sulcate. 

The legs more slender than in its allies; the tibia rather narrow and grad- 
ually widened toward the distal end, which is ornamented with two socketed 
teeth and in one of the sub-groups by an additional tooth on the outer edge 
as in other Pityophthori; the tarsi longer and more slender than in 
Pityophthorus. 


The members of this genus occurring in the United States are readily 
recognized owing to their great similarity in general appearance. However, 
when studied carefully the group readily divides itself into two sub-groups 
separated by differences nearly as great as those separating other genera of the 
Pityophthori. These differences have to do with such structures as the front 
of the head, the pregula, the tarsi, and the tibia of the fore leg. 

In sulcatus Lec. and aciculatus, new species, the front of the head in both 
sexes is strongly, convergently aciculate over a greater portion of its surface; 
while in the other group which includes materiarius Fitch, denticulatus, new 
species, retusus Lec., and alnz, new species, the frons is punctured, with an 
impunctate, elevated area in the median line with either very faint or no 
aciculations. In sulcatus and aciculatus the pregula is normal, similar in 
general to the pregula of Pityophthorus and most of its allies. In the other 
group, however, the pregula is swollen and protrudes anteroventrally. 

The two groups of species also differ as regards the structure of the fore 
legs. The general shape of the tibia is rather similar in all of the species but 
in the sulcatus-aciculatus group the submarginal teeth are confined to the 
distal end and are only two in number, while in the group containing mater- 
iarius, denticulatus, retusus, and alni these submarginal teeth are three in 
number as in all of the other Pityophthori, the third tooth being placed on 
the outer edge of the tibia. Other differences are to be seen in the degree of 
development of the serrations on the outer edge of the tibia, the modification 


266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL: 21, No. 12 


at the tarsal joint of the tibia in sulcatus and aciculatus to form a rudimen- 
tary subapical tooth, and in the greater length of the first tarsal joint in this 
same group. 

These differences might be considered great enough to warrant the separa- 
tion of sulcatus and aciculatus to form a new genus but the writer does not 
consider them of more than subgeneric value and believes the true relation- 
ship can best be expressed by dividing the genus Gnathotrichus into the sub- 
genus Gnathotrichoides, new subgenus, including sulcatus and aciculatus, and 
the subgenus Gnathotrichus, containing the other North American species. 

G. nitidifrons Hopk., described from Mexico, belongs to the true Gnatho- 
trichus, with the frons not aciculate, the pregula protuberent, and the fore 
tibia tridentate. The position of the other described species can not be de- 
termined with certainty, as the descriptions, while excellent in other respects, 
do not take cognizance of the structures which the present writer considers 
of greatest subgeneric value. However, on the basis of frontal characters 
G. consentaneus Bldfd. seems to fall into the subgenus Gnathotrichoides while 
G. longipennis Eichh., G. consobrinus Eichh., G. nanus Hichh., and G. bituber- 
culatus Bldfd. seem to belong to the true Gnathotrichus. 


Added note.—Since this paper was written in its final form, the article by 
K. Sched! (1931) on the Morphology of the bark-beetles of the genus Gnatho- 
trichus Eich. (Smithsonian Misc. Coll. Vol. 82, No. 10, Publication 3068; 
88 pp., 40 figs.) has appeared. The author has worked out the comparative 
morphology of the three species known to him in accordance with a very 
admirable plan, and has added considerably to our knowledge of this group of 
Scolytidae. In most cases he has also constructed keys to the three species, 
based on the characters of each set of structures studied. For the most part 
his findings agree with those of the present writer, but in regard to the struc- 
ture of the fore-leg he is certainly in error when he says on page 45,—‘‘ They 
(the legs) do not vary strikingly from species to species, neither in form nor in 
sculpture.’ He therefore made all of his drawings and apparently all of the 
descriptions from G. materiarius. On page 48 he says regarding the tibia,— 
“The sinestral margin bears four to six low serrations, and three marginal 
teeth which are imbedded in sockets.’’ This is true of materiarzus Fitch and 
retusus Lec. and also of the new species denticulatus and alnz, described in 
the present paper, but is certainly not true of sulcatus Lec. and aciculatus, 
new species. These latter two species have but two ‘‘marginal”’ (really sub- 
marginal), socketed teeth on the fore tibia and this character serves as one 
of the principal differences in the subdivision of the genus as proposed by 
the present writer. There are also other differences in leg structure, as for 
instance in the greater relative length of the first tarsal segment and in a 
greater tendency toward the development of a subapical tibial tooth in the 
sulcatus group. But these differences are not tangible enough to lend them- 
selves readily to use in a key. 


KEY TO THE GENUS GNATHOTRICHUS EICHHOFF 


A. Front of head punctured at sides, the median area elevated; antennal 
club with septa of sutures 1 and 2 subtransverse or weakly arcuate; the 
pregula protruding antero-ventrally; fore tibia with three submarginal 
teeth. 


JUNE 19, 1931 BLACKMAN: REVISION OF GNATHOTRICHUS 267 


Subgenus Gnathotrichus n. sub-gen. 


B. Median elevated area of frons smooth; pronotum with posterior area 


feebly shining, finely, sparsely punctured; elytra more narrowly 
rounded behind, declivity weakly or moderately sulcate, the sides 
feebly or moderately retuse; smaller species, less than 3.4 mm. long. 


C. Antennal club with septa of sutures 1 and 2 subtransverse; pronotum 


more narrowly rounded in front, flattened on a triangular area just 
posterior to summit, posterior area sparsely, very minutely punc- 
tured; the declivity feebly sulcate, the sides not distinctly retuse, 
with the granules nearly obsolete; eastern species 

materiarius Fitch. 


CC. Antennal club with septa weakly arcuate; pronotum moderately 


BB. 


rounded in front; the region posterior to summit not usually flat- 

tened, the punctures moderately fine and sparse; declivity distinctly 

suleate, the sides moderately retuse and distinctly denticulate; 

NVESUERIT SDGClGGr tre wm Ti aeee soak. ay vast. 2 ee denticulatus, n. sp. 
Median elevated area of the frons feebly aciculate in the males; poste- 
rior area of pronotum at least moderately shining, the punctures moder- 
ately fine and sparse; elytra moderately rounded behind, declivity 
strongly sulcate, the sides strongly retuse; larger species, more than 
3.5 mm. long; western species. 


C. Slightly smaller, less than 3.8 mm. long; pronotum with carina mark- 


ing summit shorter, moderately arcuate, and slightly in front of 
middle; elytra with the declivital sulcus narrower, the sides less 
strongly retuse, and the granules finer; the posterior margin moder- 
ately extended; living in western coniferous trees...... retusus Lec. 


CC. Larger, usually about 4.0 mm. long; pronotum with carina longer, 


feebly arcuate, and more anterior in position; elytra with the 
declivital sulcus wider, the sides more strongly retuse, and the 
granules coarser; the posterior margin more strongly extended; 
Haya, “WESEGHI VANOT coos ov yo ccs onda s shen eneee saniece co's alni, n. sp. 


AA. Front of the head distinctly convergently aciculate; antennal club with 
septa of sutures 1 and 2 moderately to strongly arcuate; the pregula 
not protruding; fore tibia with only two submarginal teeth. 


Subgenus Gnathotrichoides n. sub-gen. 


B. Antennal club with septa of sutures 1 and 2 moderately arcuate; front 


BB. 


of head more coarsely aciculate, the punctures coarser and more 
evident; pronotum with the carina marking the summit moderately 
elevated and weakly arcuate, posterior area brightly shining, the 
punctures moderately fine; elytral declivity more abrupt, moder- 
ately strongly retuse, the granules coarser...... aciculatus, n. sp. 
Antennal club with septa strongly arcuate; front of head distinctly 
but finely aciculate, the punctures fine; pronotum with carina weakly 
elevated, straight and short; posterior area feebly shining, the punc- 
tures minute; elytral declivity more sloping, less strongly retuse, the 
SCUANIU LEST eae eke ois, oe SE TE Le! 2) sulcatus Lec. 


268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 12 


Gnathotrichus materiarius Fitch 
Figs. 1, la, 2, and 3 


Description of the adult female—Dark reddish brown; 3.03 mm. long, 3.29 
times as long as wide. 

Front of the head plano-convex, rather coarsely, strongly, moderately 
sparsely punctured at sides and above, with moderately fine, short hairs, 
median area slightly elevated, impunctate, smooth or very faintly aciculate. 
Eye moderately granulate, the inner line broadly and deeply emarginate. 
Antenna considerably lighter in color, club 1.5 times as long as funicle, 1.29 
times as long as wide, widest through the second segment, the septa sub-. 
transverse; with a few very long hairs on the outer margin of the club and 
funicle. Pregula protruding antero-ventrally. 

Pronotum 1.29 times as long as wide, widest near the posterior margin, the 
sides subparallel on the posterior half, then regularly curved to the rather 
narrowly rounded, slightly extended front margin, which is armed with rather 
low and broad serrations; anterior area with subconcentric rows of numerous, 
rather broad and low asperities; the summit modified to form a distinct, well- 
developed, arcuate, transverse carina, anterior to the middle; the surface 
posterior to it depressed to form a shallow, median, triangular impression 
which tapers posteriorly and is lost about half way between summit and 
posterior margin; posterior area feebly shining, the surface very finely reticu- 
late, minutely, rather sparsely punctulate, glabrous; the beaded marginal 
line feebly developed. 

Elytra nearly exactly twice as long as wide, the sides subparallel, narrowly 
rounded behind, with the posterior margin extended; surface moderately 
shining, rugulose; the strial punctures very fine, in fairly regular rows, inter- 
strial punctures still more minute, very sparse on the disc, which is nearly 
glabrous, more numerous, and bearing stiff erect hairs of moderate length on 
the declivity. Declivity convex, weakly sulcate in the sutural region, the 
suture flat, lateral elevations weak, with a few small, nearly obsolete granules. 

The male is similar in size, proportions, and sculpture, but with the pro- 
notum more broadly rounded in front, and the anterior margin not extended; 
it is readily distinguished by the absence of the longer hairs on the outer 
margin of the antennal funicle and club. 

The foregoing description of the female was prepared, with the exceptions 
of the measurements of the antenna, from a specimen now in the National 
Museum but obtained from the Fitch Collection and bearing the label © 
~“Tomicus materiarius, Fitch” in Fitch’s own hand-writing. It is believed 
that this specimen served as the type for Fitch’s original description. 

This species is widely distributed over eastern Canada and the eastern 
part of the United States. The writer has examined several hundred speci- 
mens from the following States: Ontario, Canada, Maine, Vermont, Mas- 
sachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, 
Nebraska, Maryland, District of Columbia, Virginia, West Virginia, North 
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, 
and Texas. ‘The hosts are the various species of Pinus, Picea, Larix, Abies, 
and T’suga occurring’ in its range. Other conifers used in plantations or as 
ornamentals are also subject to attack. 


JUNE 19, 1931 BLACKMAN: REVISION OF GNATHOTRICHUS 269 


Figures.—1l. Fore tibia of Gnathotrichus materiarius Fitch;—la. fore tibia of same 
showing extra tooth on distal end.—2. Antenna of male G. materiarius.—3. Antenna of 
female G. materiarius.—4. Fore tibia of G. denticulatus n. sp.—5. Antenna of male 
G. denticulatus n. sp.—6. Antenna of female G. denticulatus n. sp.—7. Fore tibia of 
G. retusus Lec.—8. Antenna of female G. retusus.—9. Antenna of male G. retusus. 


All figures were made by the writer from preparations mounted in balsam, using a compound microscope 
and a camera lucida. All are magnified about 112 diameters. 


270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 12 


Gnathotrichus denticulatus, new species 


Figs. 4, 5, and 6 


Description of the adult female-—Reddish brown; 3.28 mm. long, 3.25 times 
as long as wide. 

Front of the head convex, similar to that of G. retusws but considerably 
more finely sculptured, with the median impunctate area wider and less 
elevated below; pubescence scanty and inconspicuous. Eye short oval, 
broadly and deeply emarginate, rather finely granulate. Antenna consider- 
ably lighter in color, club 1.6 times as long as funicle, 1.32 times as long as 
wide, the second segment slightly wider than the third, the septa of sutures 
1 and 2 weekly arcuate, with longer hairs on the outer margin of club and 
funicle. Pregula protruding antero-ventrally. 

Pronotum 1.19 times as long as wide; widest just behind the middle, the 
sides slightly arcuate, feebly narrowed in front of the middle, moderately 
rounded in front; the anterior margin extended and armed with broad, low 
serrations; the asperities low and broad; summit anterior to the middle and 
marked by a sharply elevated, transverse, arcuate carina; the region posterior 
to it impunctate, not flattened or impressed; posterior area with surface 
subopaque or feebly shining, finely reticulate, the punctures moderately 
sparse, shallow, much finer than in retusus; the posterior margin with little 
evidence of a beaded line. 

Elytra about equal to pronotum in width, slightly more than twice as long 
as wide; the sides subparallel; rather narrowly rounded behind, with the 
posterior margin extended; surface shining, rugulose; the strial punctures fine 
but distinct, in fairly regular rows; interspaces nearly devoid of punctures 
on the dise but sparsely punctured on sides and declivity and ornamented 
with stiff, suberect hairs of moderate length. Declivity convex, abrupt; the 
sutural region moderately sulcate (much less so than in retusus), the lateral 
elevations moderate, with a row of denticles in the third interspace. 

The male is slightly smaller, with the pronotum not extended, broadly 
rounded in front and the serrations and asperities coarser; the front of the 
head is more coarsely and roughly punctured, and the antennae lack the long 
hairs on the outer margin. 

Type.—Cat. No. 43430, U.S. N. M. 

Type, allotype, and two paratypes bear the labels, “‘Hopk, U. 8S. 3984f; 
W. F. Fiske, Colr.; Clouderoft, N. M.; Pznus ponderosa: 10 paratypes 
collected from Pinus ponderosa at Cloudcroft, N. M. by W. F. Fiske: four 
paratypes, ‘“‘Hopk. U. 8. 3899; Davis Mts., Tex., W. F. Fiske, Colr.; Pinus 
edulis:’’ 18 paratypes collected by Hopkins and Webb at Flagstaff, Ariz., 
from yellow pine: 18 paratypes collected from Pinus ponderosa and Abies 
concolor, Sta. Catalina Mts., Ariz., by J. L. Webb: 11 paratypes collected 
from P. ponderosa, P. strobiformis, and P. chichuahuana by J. L. Webb, 
Chiricahua Mts., Ariz. 


Gnathotrichus retusus Lec. 
Figs. 7, 8, and 9 


Description of the adult female—Dark reddish-brown, with the anterior part 
of pronotum and of elytra slightly lighter in color; 3.5 to 3.8 mm. long, 3.25 
times as long as wide. 


JUNE 19, 1931 BLACKMAN: REVISION OF GNATHOTRICHUS Zul 


Front of the head convex, moderately punctured, with a triangular callus 
above, one angle of which is extended as a strongly elevated smooth ridge on 
the vertex; below, with an impunctate, shining, median, broad elevation end- 
ing in a small, acute epistomal process; pubescence rather scanty. Hye 
short-oval, moderately granulate, the inner line widely, rather deeply emargi- 
nate. Antenna somewhat lighter in color, the club 1.54 times as long as funicle, 
1.23 times as long as wide; second and third segments subequal in width, the 
septa of sutures 1 and 2 rather weakly arcuate; with longer hairs on the outer 
margin of the club and funicle. Pregula protruding antero-ventrally. 

Pronotum 1.29 times as long as wide; the sides subparallel, feebly arcuate, 
moderately rounded in front, with the anterior margin slightly extended and 
armed with rather low, wide serrations; the asperities of the anterior area 
low and broad; summit anterior to middle and marked by an arcuate, rather 
strongly elevated, transverse, rather short carina, the surface posterior to it 
slightly flattened on a triangular area narrowing to a point about midway 
between summit and posterior margin; posterior area glabrous, with the 
surface finely reticulate, shining, the punctures moderately sparse, deep, 
and moderately fine; beaded marginal line feebly developed. 

Elytra very slightly narrower than pronotum, twice as long as wide, the 
sides subparallel, feebly converging, moderately rounded behind, with the 
posterior margin extended; surface shining, rugulose; the strial punctures fine 
but distinct and rather deep, in regular strial rows; interspaces nearly devoid 
of punctures on the disc, but on the sides and declivity with a few punctures 
similar in size to those of the striae and bearing stiff, suberect hairs of moderate 
length. Declivity rather abrupt, convex, strongly sulcate in the sutural area, 
with the sides strongly retuse and armed with a row of denticles. 

The male is similar, but with the median carinal area of the frons finely, 
weakly aciculate, the antenna with the longer hairs of the outer margin 
absent; the pronotum more broadly rounded and strongly serrate in front, 
and the sculpture in general slightly coarser. 

Specimens of this species examined by the writer were from British Co- 
lumbia, Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada, Idaho, and South Dakota. 
The hosts are Pinus ponderosa, P. jeffreyi, P. radiata, P. lambertiana, Pseudo- 
tsuga taxifolia, Abies magnifica, and Tsuga heterophylla. 

G. occidentalis Hopk. MS., mentioned by Hopkins (1902) but not described, 


appears to be identical with G. retusus Lec. 


Gnathotrichus alni, new species 


Figs. 10, 11, and 12 


Description of the adult female-——Dark reddish-brown; 4.04 mm. long, 3.4 
times as long as wide. 

Front of the head convex, with a triangular callus above, moderately 
punctured below, except on the elevated, median, carinal space which ends 
in a small sharp epistomal process, pubescence rather scanty and incon- 
spicuous. Hye short-oval, moderately granulate, the inner line broadly, 
moderately deeply emarginate. Antenna lighter in color, the club 1.8 times 
as long as funicle, 1.3 times as long as wide, second and third segments sub- 
equal in width, the septa of sutures 1 and 2 rather weakly arcuate; with a 
few longer hairs on the outer margin of club and funicle. Pregula lighter in 
color, except on the anterior margin, strongly protruding antero-ventrally. 


272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 12 


Pronotum 1.26 times as long as wide, widest near the posterior border, the 
sides subparallel, feebly converging anteriorly; moderately rounded in front; 
with the anterior margin extended and armed with very broad, low serrations, 
asperities very low and broad; summit anterior to the middle, marked by an 
arcuate, rather strongly elevated carina, longer than in retusus, the surface 
posterior to it slightly flattened on a triangular area which narrows to a 
point about half way to the posterior border; posterior area glabrous, with 
the surface finely reticulate, moderately shining, the punctures moderately 
fine, rather deep, moderately sparse. 

Elytra slightly narrower than pronotum, 2.18 times as long as wide, the 
sides straight and feebly converging, moderately narrowly rounded behind, 
more narrowly than in retusus, with the posterior margin extended; surface 
brightly shining, rugulose, the strial punctures fine, rather deep, in regular 
strial rows; interspaces nearly devoid of punctures and nearly glabrous on the 
disc, more numerous on the sides and declivity, similar in size to those of the 
striae and bearing stiff, suberect hairs of moderate length. Declivity moder- 
ately abrupt, less so than in retusus, convex, strongly sulcate in the sutural 
area, more widely than in retusus, with the sides strongly retuse and armed with 
a row of denticles. 

The male is similar but has the carinal area of the frons weakly and finely 
aciculate; the antennae lack the longer hairs on the outer margin; the pro- 
notum is more broadly rounded and strongly serrate in front, with the an- 
terior margin not so much extended, and in general the sculpture is slightly 
coarser. 

Type.—Cat. No. 43481, U.S. N. M. 

Type, allotype, and three paratypes bear the labels—‘ Hopk. U. 8. 1868a; 
Burke, Colr., Hoquiam, Wn.; Alnus;’’? one paratype— ‘Hopk. U. S. 2020; 
Burke, Colr., Satspo, Wn.; Alnus oregona; ”? one paratype—‘Hopk. U. S§. 
2369a, Hopkins, colr., Hoquiam, Wn.;” one paratype—‘Hopk. U.S. 4007a; 
Burke, Colr., Hoquiam, Wn.; Alnus oregona: ;’’ one paratype—‘Hopk. U.S 
4217b; Burke, Colr., Miller Lg., Wn.; Alnus oregona:’’ one paratype— 
“Webb 116e; Sequim, Wash.; Alnus; J. ite Webb, Colr.”’ 


Gnathotrichus aciculatus, new species 


Figs. 13, 14, and 15 


Description of the adult female——Dark reddish-brown; 3.54 mm. long, 3.24 
times as long as wide. 

Front of head similar to that of G. sulcatus Lec. but with the aciculations 
coarser, more coarsely and evidently punctured, and not so deep. Hye 
broad oval, moderately coarsely granulate, the inner line broadly and deeply 
emarginate. Antenna somewhat lighter in color; the club 1.79 times as long 
as funicle, 1.3 times as long as wide, the second and third segments subequal 
in width, "the septa moderately arcuate, with the usual development of long 
hairs on the outer margin of club and funicle. Pr egula normal. 

Pronotum 1.28 times as long as wide, the sides subparallel, very feebly 
arcuate, the front margin distinctly extended, rather narrowly rounded, and 
armed with moderately broad low serrations, more numerous and sharper 
than in sulcatus; anterior area with the asperities low and broad but much 
stronger than in sulcatus; the transverse carina marking the summit mod- 
erately elevated, moderately short, weakly arcuate; the surface posterior to 
it not modified ; - posterior area glabrous, with the surface very finely reticulate, 


273 


JUNE 19, 1931 BLACKMAN: REVISION OF GNATHOTRICHUS 


S Ad hyp é a : 
: te (p, Cao “GZ, UWE 4) 
Vu Bie Cee NS 
z L d - s El eg NS ees. Ly)/ 

; 4 LA . aie = Ss ER “| 
TEE it ios =e Nie alee 
oe \ = SS Sia? 

i; ¢. : i r. 7 ' 4 


7, \ QR” SE v4 
12\ 


y | 
10 Hh! Wit > ANE 
' ie al , et i i 


| \ EEE 


Ficures.—10. Fore tibia of Gnathotrichus alni n. sp.—11. Antenna of female G. aini 
n. sp.—12 Antenna of male G. alni n. sp.—13. Fore tibia of G. aciculatus n. sp.—14 
Antenna of male G. aciculatus n. sp.—15. Antenna of female G. aciculatus n. sp.—16. 
Fore tibia of G. sulcatus Lec.—17. Antenna of female G. sulcatus.—18. Antenna of male 


G. sulcatus. 


See note to figures 1-9. 


274 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 12 


shining, the punctures rather sparse, rather deep, moderately fine; beaded 
marginal line feebly developed or lacking. 

Elyira slightly less than twice as long as wide, the sides subparallel, moder- 
ately narrowly rounded behind, with the posterior margin extended; surface 
brightly shining, densely rugulose; the strial punctures moderately fine, in 
nearly regular rows; interspaces nearly devoid of punctures on the disc; on 
the sides and declivity with a few punctures coarser than those of the striae 
and bearing moderately long stiff hairs more numerous than in sulcatus. 
In the fifth interspace a sparse row extends forward nearly to the middle 
of the elytra. Declivity convex, more abrupt than in sulcatus and with the 
sulcus deeper, the retusions higher and armed with coarser, more numerous 
granules. 

The male is slightly smaller and the anterior margin of the pronotum more 
broadly rounded, not extended, the sculptures slightly coarser, and the 
antennae show the usual sexual differences. 

Type.—Cat. No. 434382, U. 8. N. M. 

Type and one paratype bear the labels—‘‘Hopk. U. 8. 3986b, Cloudcroft, 
N. M.; Pinus ponderosa:” allotype— “‘Hopk. U. 8. 3988, W. F. Fiske, Colr. ; 
Clouderoft, N. M.; Pseudotsuga taxifolia;’ one paratype—‘Hopk. U. S. 
3981b; Clouderoft, N. M.; Pseudotsuga taxifolia:’’ two paratypes—‘Hopk. 
U.S. 3984f; Clouderoft, N. M.; Pinus ponderosa: one paratype—‘‘Hopk. 
U. S. 5708b; J. L. Webb, colr.: Sta. Catalina Mts., Ariz.:” a series of 14 
paratypes bearing various lot numbers collected by J. L. Webb, Sta. Catalina 
Mts., Ariz., from Pinus ponderosa, Abies concolor, and Pseudotsuga tazifolia: 
a series of 16 paratypes collected by J. L. Webb, Chiricahua Mts., Ariz. from 
Abies concolor, Pinus ponderosa, P. strobiformis, and Pseudotsuga taxifolia: 
three paratypes—‘Hopk. U. 8. 7160 & 7164, Rincon Mts., Ariz.; Pinus 
ponderosa: 54 paratypes collected by J. L. Webb, Black Hills, S. D. from 
Pinus ponderosa under various lot numbers: one paratype—‘Hopk. U. S. 
12436q; W. D. Edmonston, Colr.; Waldo Canon, Colo.; Pinus scopulorum.” 


Gnathotrichus sulcatus Lec. 


Figs. 16, 17, and 18 


Description of the adult female-—Dark reddish-brown 3.48 mm. long, 3.3 times 
as long as wide. 

Front of the head convex, strongly convergently aciculate, the median area 
broadly, indistinctly elevated below, weakly flattened at each side with fine 
punctures among the aciculations; above smooth, shining, with coarser, 
sparse punctures and with a distinct median carina on the vertex; ornamented 
with a few moderate hairs, directed downward. Hye broad oval, moderately 
coarsely granulate, the inner line broadly, moderately deeply emarginate. 
Antenna lighter in color, club 1.78 times as long as funicle, 1.33 times as long 
as wide; the second and third segments subequal in width, the septa strongly 
arcuate; with a few much longer hairs on the outer margin of the club and 
funicle. Pregula normal. 

Pronotum 1.27 times as long as wide, the sides subparallel, faintly arcuate, 
the front margin moderately broadly rounded, distinctly extended, and 
armed with very broad and very low serrations;. anterior area with the sub- 
concentric rows of asperities very low and very broad, the summit anterior to 
the middle and marked with a short, straight, feebly elevated, transverse 
carina, the surface posterior to it not flattened or impressed except occa- 


JUNE 19, 1931 BLACKMAN: REVISION OF GNATHOTRICHUS 279 


sionally and then very weakly; posterior area subopaque or feebly shining, 
the surface very finely reticulate, glabrous, with the punctures shallow, very 
minute, almost obsolete, and moderately sparse, the beaded marginal line 
feebly developed, sometimes not to be distinguished. | 

Elytra twice as long as wide, the sides subparallel, very narrowly rounded 
behind with the posterior margin distinctly extended; surface feebly shining, 
densely, minutely rugulose; the strial punctures minute, in fairly regular rows; 
interspaces nearly devoid of punctures on disc, very minute, more numerous, 
and bearing stiff erect hairs of moderate length on the declivity. Declivity 
convex, the sutural region moderately sulcate, more strongly than in materia- 
rius Fitch, much less strongly than in retusus Lec., the suture not elevated, 
lateral elevations moderate, with a row of minute granules in line with the 
third interspace. 

The male is similar in general proportions, but with the pronotum more 
broadly rounded in front and the anterior margin not extended. It is also 
readily distinguished by the absence of the long hairs on the antennal club and 
funicle. 

Examples of this species have been studied from British Columbia, Wash- 
ington, Oregon, California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Mexico. It probably 
breeds in all of the coniferous trees within its range but specimens from the 
following hosts have been examined by the writer: Pinus ponderosa, Picea 
engelmanni, P. sitchensis, Tsuga heterophylla, T. mertensiana, Pseudotsuga 
taxifolia, Abies concolor, A. grandis, Sequioia sempervirens, S. washingtoniana, 
and Thuja _ plicata. 

The above description was prepared from material compared with Le- 


Conte’s types and found to be identical. 


REFERENCES CITED 


BuackMAN, M. W. Mississippi bark beetles. Miss. Agr. Exp. Sta., Tech. Bull. No. 11, 
130 pp., 18 pls. 1922. 

BuackMaNn, M. W. The genus Pityophthorus EHichh. in North America: A revisional 
study of the Pityophthori, with descriptions of two new genera and seventy-one new 
species. Tech. Publ. No. 25., N. Y. 8S. Coll. Forestry, 182 pp., 11 pls. 1928. 

BLANDFORD, W. F. H. Family Scolytidae. Biol. Central. Amer., Coleoptera IV, Pt. 
6, pp. 81-298, 6 pls. 1895. 

Fitcu, A. Fourth report on the noxious insects of New York. N. Y. State Agr. Soc. 
Ann. Rept. 1857, pp. 687-814. 1858. 

Ercuyorr, W. Neue Borkenkafer. Berl. Ent. Zeitschr., XII, pp. 273-280. 1868. 

Eicuyorr, W. Ratio, descriptio, emendatio Tomicinorum. Mem. Soc. Roy. Sci., de 
Liege VIII, 531 pp. 5 pls. 1878. 

Harris, T.W. Characteristics of some previously described North American Coleopterous 
insects and descriptions of others which appear to be new, in the collection of Mr. 
Abraham Halsey. Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Hartford, No. 1, pp. 65-91, 1 pl. 1837. 

Hopkins, A.D. Insect enemies of the pine in the Black Hills Forest Reserve. U.S. D.A. 
Bur. Ent. Bull. 32: 14. 1902. 

Hopkins, A.D. Notes on some Mexican Scolytidae, with descriptions of some new species. 
Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., 7: 71-81. 1905. 

Hopxins, A. D. List of generic names and their type species in the Coleopterous super- 
family Scolytoidea. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., 48: 115-136. 1914. 


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HupparD, H.G. The Ambrosia beetles of the United States. U.S. D.A. Bur. Ent. Bull 
7: 1-30. 1897. 

LeConts, J. L. Appendix to Zimmermann’s synopsis of Scolytidae. Trans. Amer. 
Ent. Soc., 2: 150-178. 1868. 

LeConte, J. L. The Rhynchophora of America north of Mexico. Proc. Amer. Phil. 
Soc., XV, No. 96, 455 pp. 1876. 

PackaRD, A.S. Insects injurious to forest and shade trees. V Rept. U.S. Ent. Comm., 
pp. 1-955. 1890. 

Scuwarz, E. A. Remarks on North America Scolytids. Ent. Amer., 2: 40-42. 1886. 

Scowarz, E. A. Remarks. Ent. Soc. Wash. Proc. 1: 56. 1888. 

Swaine, J.M. Catalogue of the described Scolytidae of America north of Mexico. N.Y. 
State Mus., Bull. 134: 75-194. 1909. 

SwaIne, J. M. Canadian bark beetles. Dom. Ent. Br. Dept. Agr., Bull. 14, Pt. II, pp. 
1-143. 1918. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


1015TH MEETING 


The 1015th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday 
evening, January 17, 1931. The meeting was called to order at 8:15 P.M. by 
President CuRTIS. 

Program: E. O. Huxupsurt: The zodiacal light (illustrated).—Variations 
in the zodiacal light, from the observations of Jones in 1853-1855 and of more 
recent observers, are shown to occur during magnetic storms. This indicates 
that the commonly accepted planet-dust theory of the zodiacal light is unten- 
able and opens the way to an atmospheric theory which is developed quanti- 
tatively. Neutral atoms and molecules sprayed out in all directions from the 
earth’s atmosphere are ionized at 50,000 to 70,000-kilometer levels by the 
ultra-violet light of the sun. Because of the wobble of the earth’s magnetic 
field with the rotation of the earth, ions near the equatorial plane stay for 
some time at these high levels to form a ring around the earth, and ions at 
high latitudes fall quickly back to the earth to give aurorae. The gravita- 
tional magnetic drift of the ions forces the ion ring into a long oval stretching 
out away from the sun to 10° kilometers. The pressure of the sunlight warps. 
the oval into the plane of the ecliptic and makes the ions stream out like a 
comet’s tail. The ions are fluorescent; they absorb the sun’s ultra-violet 
light and emit a part of the absorbed energy as visible light. The oval ring 
is the zodiacal light; the comet-tail ion stream is the gegenschein. The zo- 
diacal cones in December are somewhat to the south of the cones in June; the 
evening cone is south and north of the morning cone in March and September, 
respectively. These theoretical inferences are in accord with observation. 
(Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. WuitTn, GisH, and CURTIS. 

H. T. Wenset: The Waidner-Burgess standard of light and the freezing 
point of platinum (illustrated).—The unit of light is at present maintained by 
carbon filament lamps deposited in the various national laboratories. The 
unit of light is therefore subject to any drift that may occur in the brightness 
of these standard lamps. 


JUNE 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 207 


Various sources, more or less reproducible from specifications, have been 
studied from time to time, but none has been found reproducible enough for 
use asastandard. The carbon lamps were adopted in 1909 primarily because 
it was felt that their drift with time would be sufficiently small so that it would 
be many years before the uncertainty in the unit would reach the magnitude 
of the uncertainties in the unit as represented by those sources, “‘reproducible”’ 
from specifications, which were then available. It was recognized, however, 
that in time the carbon lamps would have to be superseded by some reprodu- 
cible standard. 

In 1908 Waidner and Burgess suggested the use of a black body immersed 
in a bath of freezing platinum as a standard of candlepower. This suggestion 
has been experimentally carried out. The platinum was contained in cruci- 
bles of fused thorium oxide and heated in a high-frequency induction furnace. 
The immersed black body was made of fused thorium oxide. The source as 
set up was found, by comparison with standard carbon filament lamps, to be 
reproducible within the limits detected photometrically. 

The brightness of the immersed black body was found to be 58.84 candles 
per cm.? during the freezing of the platinum. Measurements of the tempera- 
ture with an optical pyrometer yielded 1773.5°C. From these results the 
least mechanical equivalent of light may be computed as 0.001603 watt per 
lumen. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Mr. WHITE. 


1016TH MEETING 


The 1016th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday 
evening, January 31, 1931. The meeting was called to order at 8:15 P.M. by 
President CurRtTIs. 

Program: V.L. CHRISLER and W. F. Snyper: The measurement of sound 
absorption (illustrated)—The common interest of the acoustical laboratory, 
the architect, and the manufacturer of sound-absorption materials demands a 
measurement of the sound-absorbing qualities of the various materials. The 
term, coefficient of absorption, is used as a basis for comparison and is simply 
the fractional part of the sound energy absorbed at each reflection. 

There are two general methods of making sound-absorption measurements, 
—the tube and the reverberation method—each of which has several modifi- 
cations. The tube method is now practically obsolete because of inherent 
characteristics which fail to bring it into agreement with the more accepted 
reverberation method. 

Although Wallace Sabine of Harvard University had made many experi- 
mental determinations by the reverberation method it was not until 1911 
that Jaeger developed a satisfactory mathematical analysis of the problem. 

The usual method of making these measurements has been by the ear— 
listening for the sound to decay from some definite intensity level to the 
threshold of audibility. To calibrate a room it is necessary to change the 
intensity of the sound and Sabine used one, two, three, and four organ pipes 
to make this change. Recent developments in loud speakers and amplifiers 
make it possible to work through a range of intensity shifts of several thou- 
sand; consequently the time differences are larger and the accuracy is in- 
creased. When using the ear it is necessary to make about 1000 stop-watch 
observations to determine the coefficient of absorption of a material at six 
frequencies. This is a rather laborious and time-consuming procedure. 


278 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 12 


The general equation can be put into a form that will yield an absorption 
value by measurement of the rate of decay of the sound in the room. Picking 
up the decaying sound with a microphone and recording it on an oscillograph 
has met with some success but it is also a time-consuming process. At pres- 
ent a purely instrumental method is being used at the Bureau of Standards. 
The initial intensity of sound and an arbitrary setting of the recording instru- 
ment determines two sound levels whose time difference is recorded by an 
electric clock that is automatically started and stopped. Very rapid observa- 
tions can be made and therefore a statistical method is possible. This is 
desirable in sound measurements. (Author’s abstract). 

Discussed by Messrs. Hnyt, Humpureys, TuckeRMAN, and CuRTIS. 

R. H. Canrretp: Internal friction in metals (illustrated).—This paper is 
a resumé of the author’s experiments and an account of his experimental 
methods. 

The property known as internal friction or elastic hysteresis is due to an 
imperfection in the elastic properties of materials, such that the stress is 
higher when the strain is increasing than it is when the strain is decreasing. 
Thus the stress-strain diagram of a specimen carried through a cycle of stress, 
varying from zero to +f to zero to —f to zero, is a loop instead of a straight 
line as it would be if Hooke’s law were precisely true. It is difficult to deter- 
mine the form of this loop by static tests and extensometer measurements. 
On the other hand it is easy to measure the area of the loop, since this is the 
portion of energy dissipated as heat during the stress-cycle. It has ordinarily 
been the custom to make this measurement by measuring the rate of decay 
of vibrations of an elastically controlled pendulum. The disadvantage of this 
method is that during the course of the experiment the stress-amplitude 
changes by a considerable amount, so that the value of the dissipation con- 
stant is an average over a range of stresses and not a unique value for a single 
stress. This is undesirable because, as the author’s experiments show, the 
internal friction undergoes rather abrupt changes at certain stress-amplitudes. 

The author’s method, without entering into details, uses the phenomenon 
of forced vibrations at constant amplitudes. Under these conditions the 
elastic pendulum is supplied with a fixed amount of energy at each vibration, 
this energy being exactly equal to the work dissipated by internal friction 
during one cycle. This energy is actually supplied by magnetic forces, and 
the principal experimental problem is to determine what the work done by 
these forces actually is. The present method of driving involves the use of a 
subsidiary pendulum loosely coupled to the main one and carrying contacts 
which contro] the admission of current into the magnet windings through a 
vacuum-tube valve circuit. Adjustable oil cups act on damping vanes 
attached to the subsidiary pendulum so as to permit the exact adjustment of 
the phase relation between the two vibrations necessary for maximum ampli- 
tude. The forces due to the magnetic field are determined once for all by . 
static measurements. 

The experimental results cannot be described in actual detail here. They 
show that it is possible to duplicate results with different pieces of apparatus 
and different-sized specimens of the same material. They also bring to light 
very interesting relations between the internal friction and the mechanical 
history. Such treatments as cold working, fatigue, and precipitation hard- 
ening, reveal themselves by marked changes in the internal-friction 
‘‘diagram.”’ 


JUNE 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 219 


The internal-friction diagram, just referred to, is considered by the author 
to be the most advantageous way of displaying his experimental results. The 
ordinate of a point on this curve, called the elastic stress, is the stress-ampli- 
tude of the cycle. The abscissa is the friction stress, defined as the half-width 
of the elastic hysteresis loop, considered to be a parallelogram such that its 
area is equal to the loss of energy for the stress-cycle in question. The dia- 
gram is often approximately linear. In such cases the cotangent of the slope 
angle is the ratio of internal-friction stress to elastic stress, and can be termed 
the coefficient of internal friction in complete analogy to the common definition 
of the coefficient of surface friction. (Awthor’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. Curtis, BROMBACHER, and BRICKWEDDE. 


1017TH MEETING 


The 1017th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday 
evening, February 14, 1931. The meeting was called to order at 8:17 P.M. 
by President Curtis. 

Program: F. L. Mouter and C. BorcKNEerR: The radiation from metal 
surfaces under low-speed electron bombardment (illustrated) —A small probe 
surface in the highly ionized region of a discharge may draw an electron cur- 
rent of several amperes per cm.? at any positive potential relative to the sur- 
rounding space. Under such conditions the metal probe surface emits a con- 
tinuous spectrum radiation. This has been observed in helium, potassium, 
and caesium discharges and studied quantitatively in the last case. The 
spectrum of copper radiation at 7 volts shows an approximately equal energy 
distribution with an absolute value at 3700 AU of 3 * 10- ergs per cm.? per 
sec per unit frequency range for a current density of 1.4 amperes per cm.?. 
The intensity distribution remains nearly the same between 5 and 20 volts 
but below 4 volts has a frequency limit in the ultra-violet. This threshold 
frequency v, depends on the voltage V by the relation 


hy, =e (V+ W) 


where W (presumably the work function of the caesiated metal) has values of 
1.95 volts for copper, 2.1 volts for silver, and 1.45 volts for tungsten. The 
intensity-voltage curves increase rapidly up to 7 volts and very slowly beyond. 
The radiation can be considered as analogous to the continuous X-ray spec- 
trum. The general equation for X-ray intensity as a function of voltage pre- 
dicts an intensity for Cu at 7 volts and 3700 AU of 1.85 X 10-" ergs in satis- 
factory agreement with the observed value of 3 X 10-4. A theoretical 
relation between the photoelectric effect and the converse process also leads 
to an agreement in order of magnitude with the observed intensities. (Au- 
thor’s abstract.) 

Discussed by BRICKWEDDE. 

F. E. Wriacut: Optical methods for reducing the effects of photographic-plate 
grain (illustrated) —The image on a photographic plate consists of clumps 
and aggregates of minute particles of silver scattered through the gelatine 
film. At points where the silver particles are closely packed, the plate is 
dark. In making measurements on photographic images, the accuracy of the 
setting depends on a number of factors, of which one of the most disturbing is 
the presence of a large grain or clump of silver particles. A more exact mea- 
surement could be made if this effect of prominent grains were suppressed, 
even if only partially. 


280 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 12 


In the case of spectral lines which are straight and parallel different optical 
methods can be used for suppressing or fusing the prominent grains: (1) 
The image itself can be made to vibrate rapidly parallel with the spectral lines 
(method of Linnik). (2) Each object point can be drawn out into an image 
line parallel with the spectral lines by means of a cylindrical lens (method of 
Anderson). (3) Each object point can be elongated into a short image line 
by inserting a tilted glass plate between the objective of the observing micro- 
scope and the photographic plate. (4) Each object point can be elongated 
into a short line in the image by use of a single or multiple narrow slit-dia- 
phragm above the objective. (5) Two images of each spectral line are pro- 
duced and the one is superimposed on the second, but slightly shifted along 
the spectral line (Wollaston prism method). (6) The plate is viewed under 
dark-ground illumination. Each silver grain or clump becomes a luminous 
image point on which it is easy to make an accurate setting. 

The fusing of grains that mark the position of the image of a star can be 
effected by reducing the resolving power of the imaging microscope objective 
either by the use of an iris diaphragm in the rear focal plane of the objective 
or by first forming a minified image of the plate and then observing this image 
under suitable magnification. In each case the resolving power of the optical 
system is so much reduced that silver particles separated by a short distance 
no longer appear as separate points in the image. Another method of fusion 
is to cause the image to vibrate in rapid circulatory motion; the diameter of 
the small vibration circle should be about equal to the average distance be- 
tween the silver particles in a star’s image. ‘This movement is most readily 
accomplished by use of a weak lens mounted in an iron ring suspended by 
three elastic wires in front of the objective. The iron ring is set in motion by 
two electromagnets set 90° apart and actuated by alternating currents, the 
phase of the two currents differing by 90°. The 60-cycle alternating current 
causes the ring to oscillate so rapidly that the image appears stationary and 
fused. 

These methods for decreasing graininess in special parts of a photographic 
plate enhance the accuracy of measurement several fold and at the same time 
decrease eye-strain to an appreciable extent. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Mr. HuMpuHREys. 

Two short informal communications were given by Messrs. TucKERMAN 
and DryYpDEN, and a report made by HUMPHREYS. 


1018TH MEETING 


The 1018th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturda 
evening, February 28, 1931. The meeting was called to order at 8:20 P.M. 
by President Curtis. 

Program: ¥. T. Davies: Aurora australis observed on the Byrd Antarctic 
Expedition (illustrated)—Observations of both aurora borealis and australis 
indicate an auroral zone in either hemisphere and a belt within each of the 
zones in which auroral displays are most frequent. In the north, this maxi- 
mum-frequency belt is situated at about 23° from the point in which the axis 
of the earth’s uniform magnetic field meets the surface. This point is not the 
magnetic pole, however. 

Analysis of the auroral records of antarctic expeditions shows that a similar 
distribution of auroral frequency occurs in the southern hemisphere centered 
approximately on the opposite projection of the earth’s magnetic axis. 


JUNE 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 281 


In the northern hemisphere, observations have been made of aurora for a 
very long time and in many localities both north and south of the maximum- 
frequency belt. In the south, on the contrary, observations have been taken 
largely south of the maximum-frequency belt and these over a total period of 
some thirty years. Although the aurora australis has been seen occasionally 
in the countries of the southern hemisphere, these countries are separated from 
the antarctic by wide stretches of ocean, little traversed by ships, so that only 
exceptionally widely spread auroras are observed north of the antarctic maxi- 
mum-frequency belt. Thus in the study of the aurora borealis, the observa- 
tions of polar expeditions are supplemented by considerable observational 
data in temperate latitudes, while our knowledge of the aurora australis is 
derived chiefly from the records of the few expeditions that have wintered on 
the antarctic continent. 

The following expeditions made regular systematic auroral observations: 
The Borchgrevink Expedition, 1899, Cape Adare; the Scott Expeditions, 
1902-03 and 1911-12, McMurdo Sound and Cape Adare; the German Ex- 
pedition under Drygalski, 1902, Kaiser-Wilhelm Land; Shackleton Expedi- 
tion, 1908, McMurdo Sound; the Mawson Expedition, 1912-13, Addie Land 
and Macquarie Island; and the Byrd Expedition, 1929, Bay of Whales. All 
of these bases with the exception of Macquarie Island were within the belt of 
maximum frequency. 

The aurora australis exhibits similar phenomena to the aurora borealis so 
that the terminology is the same for both. The fact that McMurdo Sound, 
the base for three of the above expeditions, is a considerable distance from the 
maximum belt, has given the impression that the aurora australis is much less 
brilliant than the aurora borealis. Mawson’s bases, the German base, and 
our own were also well within this zone but the Cape Adare observations show 
that the aurora australis as seen from that position is much brighter, more 
colored, and more active than as seen from any of the other positions. 

At Little America the aurora australis was first seen on the night of March 
16-17, 1929. A regular 24-hour watch was instituted on April 3 and kept up 
for the remainder of the year. The observations taken at half-hourly inter- 
vals between April 3 and September 26 at which date an aurora was last seen, 
form the basis of analysis. A single observation included mention of time 
(165° meridian east of Greenwich); intensity of display on a scale 0-4, ‘‘0” 
meaning not seen and “‘4”’ brilliant; form, that is, glow, arch, curtain, rays and 
streamers, or corona; direction; altitude; and color. The amount of cloud 
and the intensity of moonlight were also noted. 

It was found that of all clear or only partly cloudy nights an aurora was 
seen on over 90 per cent of the time. A better estimate of occurrence, how- 
ever, is the proportion of half-hourly observations when an aurora was seen 
(1412 times) to the number when conditions of cloud and light were such as 
would allow it to beseen. This proportion was 48 percent. The comparable 
figures were: For the Scott Expedition, 1911, 36 per cent; for the Mawson 
Expedition, 1912-13, 52 per cent; and the second group of the Scott Expedition 
at Cape Adare, 1911, 64 per cent. Even though 1929 was a year near the 
maximum of the sunspot cycle the proportion is considerably below the Cape 
Adare proportion for a year near sunspot minimum. 

A marked feature of the observations of Little America was the progressive 
change throughout the period of observation of the following phenomena: 
(a) The average intensity of a display was greatest in April, least in Septem- 
ber, and decreased during the period between; (b) the ratio of the number of 


282 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 12 


displays seen to the number that could possibly have been seen (cloud and 
light permitting) was greatest in April and decreased throughout the period 
to September; (c) the proportion of displays at a high altitude was least in 
April and greatest in September, the proportion increasing slightly through 
the period; (d) although the majority of displays were seen in the eastern sky, 
the proportion of those seen in the west increased during the period from April 
to September; (e) the proportion of displays exhibiting ray-structure, although 
less than half the total from April to August, increased in September to more 
than half. 

Of the 1412 half-hourly observations, 24 were classed as brilliant, 60 as 
bright, 321 as moderate, and 1007 as weak or faint. Comparison of auroral 
character-numbers with the international magnetic character-numbers showed 
marked evidence for the occurrence of auroral maxima on the same day or one 
day after maxima in the magnetic character-curve. This has been suggested 
in a paper by E. O. Hulburt (Phys. Rev., July 15, 1929). 

A period of 27 to 28 days is evidenced, corresponding to the period of rota- 
tion of the sun and also a short period of about four days. Much has still to 
be done before complete analysis of the auroral data can be submitted. All 
members of the Expedition cooperated in the auroral observations. The 
general interest shown by observers made the direction of the work a very 
pleasant task. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. HutBurtT, Heck, Giso, and HUMPHREYS. 

E. E. Haausr, Jr.: The second principle of uncertainty. 

Discussed by Messrs. Gisson, GisH, and DRYDEN. 

G. R. Wait, Recording Secretary. 


Obituary 


Raout GAUTIER, a corresponding member of the AcapEMy, died in Geneva, 
Switzerland, on April 19, 1931. Previous to his retirement in 1927, he filled 
the chairs of professor of astronomy and of meteorology at the University of 
Geneva and was director of the Astronomical Observatory of Geneva. For 
many years he was a member of the Permanant Commission of the old Inter- 
national Geodetic Association and was largely instrumental in forming, during 
the World War, the “Association géodésique réduite entre états neutres.”’ 
Through his efforts, the results obtained at variation-of-latitude stations in 
California, Japan, and Italy were computed and made availabie for the use of 
astronomers. In addition to his other duties he was for many years president 
of the Swiss Geodetic Commission. His keen intellect, scientific attainments, 
and personal charm made him a powerful influence for several decades among 
geodesists of the world, and they, as well as the astronomers, mourn his death. 


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Won. 21 JuLy 19, 1931 No. 13 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY .—Why the Mayan cities of the Petén Dis- 
trict, Guatemala, were abandoned.! C. WytHr Cooks, U. 8. 
Geological Survey. 


Two thousand years ago what is now the Petén District of Guatemala 
was the seat of a flourishing Mayan empire. Its massive temples and 
palaces still mark the sites of large cities which endured for many gen- 
erations but were finally abandoned. ‘Today, that once-populous 
region is, for the most part, totally uninhabited. The great cornfields 
which fed its people have reverted to the jungle, and the ruins of its 
public buildings lie hidden in a dense forest. The few permanent 
habitations are on the banks of perennial lakes and rivers along the 
main route of travel across the District. The remainder of the region 
is accessible only by means of narrow trails kept open by chicleros or 
cut by exploring archeologists. 

My acquaintance with the Petén District was gained in March and 
April, 1931, when I was sent by the Carnegie Institution of Washington 
to study the geology of the region accessible from the camp of the 
Institution’s Department of Historical Research at Uaxactun. I 
entered Guatemala at Yaloche, a customs house on the frontier, a day’s 
ride northwest of Cayo, British Honduras, travelled 3 days westward 
to Uaxactun, spent 10 days there, and proceeded southward past Tikal 
to Remate, a settlement at the eastern end of Lake Petén. From this 
lake I followed a well-travelled road northeastward past Lake Macanxé 
to Yaxha, a settlement between two lakes, thence to Tikan Sakan and 
down the valley of Rio San Felipe to Fireburn on the frontier of British 
Honduras. 


1 Received June 5, 1931. Published by permission of the Acting Director of the U.S. 
Geological Survey. 


283 


284 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 13 


Travel in the Petén is slow and tedious. The length of a day’s 
journey varies according to the season and is determined in large part 
by the distance between water holes, for there are few perennial 
streams and many of the water holes become dry after the end of the 
rainy season. 

Uaxacttin lies on or near the divide that separates the drainage 
systems of the Gulf of Honduras from those of the Gulf of Mexico. 
Streams east of Uaxacttin flow into Rio Hondo or into Belize River, 
which empty into the Gulf of Honduras, but water falling west of 
Uaxactun finds its way into tributaries of the Usumacinta, which flows 
into Campeche Bay. 

Because of the thick cover of forest which cuts off the view in all 
directions, it is difficult to visualize the topography of the Petén. The 
clearings around the camp at Uaxacttin, which are on the lowlands, 
show only a shallow depression containing a plant-covered water hole 
(aguada), a grassy flat, and hillocks about twenty feet high, beyond 
which the view is stopped by the edge of the forest. Even from the 
top of the highest temple, nothing can be seen but the enclosing jungle. 
But from the window of a ruined Mayan building which is perched on 
a mound at the edge of the upland 150 feet above the aguada, one can 
look eastward over the tree tops and the clearings, across a wide 
forested plain to low, broken ridges on the horizon. 

There are two very different kinds of topography in this part of the 
Petén—uplands and lowlands, or bajos. The uplands are hills and 
ridges of limestone which rise to a maximum height of several hundred 
feet above the bajos. They are barely covered by a thin soil of black 
clay, and are dotted here and there with sinks. In the neighborhood of 
Uaxactun, the highest hills stand 650 or 700 feet above sea level, and 
the bajos about 500 or 550 feet. The bajos are flat plains with almost 
no perceptible relief. ‘They are underlain by tough black carbonaceous 
clay. The uplands are clothed with a fairly open forest contaiming 
many tall, large trees, such as mahogany, chicle, and ceiba but com- 
paratively little underbrush. The bajos are covered with a tangled 
mass of low gnarled and twisted trees, such as logwood. Many of the 
trees in the bajos are small-leaved and thorny, and are festooned with 
large vines. During the rainy season the bajos are flooded; at the 
beginning of the dry season they are floored with deep tough mud 
which, later in the year, drys hard and cracks. At all seasons they 
are very unpleasant to travel through. 


285 


MAYAN CITIES 


COOKE: 


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286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 13 


The bajos evidently once were lakes. They are still lakes during 
the rainy season, but they have been so nearly filled with silt that a 
slight depression of water level due to run-off or evaporation reduces 
them to ponds or drains them completely. The source of the clay that 
fills them is the soil of the uplands—black, carbonaceous clay formed 
by the decomposition and solution of limestone and mixed with 
organic matter. 

The bajos are thickly scattered over the Petén (see figure 1), and 
some of them are very large. If the bajos were restored to their 
former condition, the Petén would be a region of many beautiful lakes. 
Travel in it would be easy, for one could go from place to place by boat, 
with only short journeys overland, from one lake to another, across 
country that offers little impediment to travel at any season. It is 
quite likely that many of the bajos are connected by waterways which 
carry off the surplus water during the rainy season, although others 
occupy enclosed basins from which the water drains away through 
underground channels. Some idea of what the country once was like 
can be gained from views of the beautiful lakes that still remain. Of 
these Lake Petén, about 18 miles long, is the largest and best known. 
Flores, the principal town of the district, lies on an island in Lake 
Petén and there are several smaller settlements on its banks. Many 
of the smaller lakes, such as the Laguna de Yaloche, are already silted 
up to such an extent that small fluctuations in water level cause great 
changes in area. 

How long ago these ancient lakes became filled with silt and converted 
into bajos can not be determined precisely. Doubtless the process 
was continuous and gradual although there may have been times when 
silting was more rapid than at others. Silting is still going on but 
probably very slowly because the uplands from which the silt is 
derived are thickly forested. It is quite possible that the transition 
from lake to bajo may have occurred during the time of the Mayan 
Empire, when much of the uplands must have been under cultivation. 
The Mayas were an agricultural people and needed much cleared land 
to raise the great quantities of corn required to feed their large popula- 
tion. The rate of erosion of the soil must have been enormously accel- 
erated when the forest was cut and the cultivated soil was exposed to 
the full force of the torrential rains. One may imagine the Petén 
when first occupied by the Mayas to have had a thick fertile black 
soil. During the many centuries of the Mayan occupation more and 
more of the soil was washed away until the bare limestone was exposed. 


PoE LO 1931 COOKE: MAYAN CITIES 287 


Then the land was abandoned and reverted to the jungle, soil erosion 
was greatly retarded, and today, after the lapse of several centuries, 
the ground is covered by a thin but fairly even coating of black clay 
through which the rock still shows in many places. Soil is probably 
being formed now more rapidly than it is being washed away. 

One can scarcely imagine the Petén, in its present condition, as the 
home of a large permanent population. One difficulty is the lack of 
an adequate water supply. There are few permanent water holes in 
the Petén and some of the old Mayan town sites are without any obvi- 
ous present source of water. The Mayas may have depended upon 
stores of rain water to tide them over the dry season, just as Belize 
today gets its entire water supply from the clouds, but the rainfall is 
much more seasonal in the interior than at Belize. Another difficulty 
is the lack of transportation facilities. If the geography during the 
time of the Mayan occupation had been like the present, all the provi- 
sions and merchandise would have had to-be carried to or from the 
cities on the backs of men (for the Mayas had no beasts of burden), 
and the bajos would have offered almost impassable barriers to trans- 
portation during part of the year. If, however, the bajos were per- 
manent lakes during the time of the Mayan occupation, there was 
plenty of water throughout the whole year and commerce was speeded 
at all seasons by water transportation. 

Another way in which the transition from lakes to bajos may have 
influenced the occupation of the Petén is its effect upon the health 
and comfort of the people by the increase of mosquitoes. As long as 
the water remained deep near shore, mosquitoes probably were not 
very numerous, for their larvae would have fallen prey to fishes, but 
when the deep water was converted into swamps and marshes, swarms 
of mosquitoes must have plagued the people. If, about this time, 
malaria was introduced into the country, sickness and death may have 
taken their toll of the population. 

Some of the factors, then, that may have caused the decline of the 
Mayan Empire and the depopulation of the Petén are (1) erosion of 
_ the soil and the consequent scarcity of arable land, (2) silting of the 
lakes and the destruction of water transportation, (8) diminution of 
the water supply during the dry season, (4) increase in the number of 
mosquitoes, and (5) introduction or increase of malaria. 


288 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 13 


BOTANY .—Additional Costa Rican mosses, II... Epwin B. BARTRAM, 
Bushkill, Pennsylvania. 


Since the last paper on this subject was published the continued 
interest of Professor Manuel Valerio in the Costa Rican mosses has 
resulted in an accumulation of about 155 numbers, among which are 
some items of unusual scientific value. 

The appended list includes only the species not recorded in the two 
previous publications (1, 2), to which has been added the description 
of a unique moss collected by Mr. Standley, which not only adds a new 
genus to the moss flora of North America but at the same time again 
emphasizes the close connection between the mosses of Costa Rica and 
those of the Cordilleran regions to the southward. 

A complete series of specimens, including the types of the species 
described as new, has been deposited in the National Herbarium at 
Washington, D. C., and in the herbarium of the writer. 


DICRANACEAE 
DICRANELLA SUBINCLINATA Lor. 


Chitaria, Province of Cartago, alt. 700 m., Dec. 20, 1928, M. Valerio no. 239. 
Previously known from Florida, the Antilles, Mexico and Panama. 


SYMBLEPHARIS HELICOPHYLLA Mont. 


Syn.—Symblepharis Oerstediana C.M. 

Voledn Irazt, alt. 3300 m., April 7, 1929, M. Valerio no. 297. 

This is a decidedly more robust form than the plants I am familiar with in 
the southwestern United States and the leaf cells of the upper half of the blade 
are frequently in two layers. These characters are, however, by no means 
constant and it seems doubtful if the Costa Rican collections can be segregated 
from the type. 


CampyLopus Donne ui (Aust.) Lesq. & James. 


La Hondura, Province of San José, alt. 1400 m., Jan. 15, 1929, M. Valerio 
no. 261. 

There is no record of this species outside of Florida, as far as I am aware, 
so that its occurfence in Costa Rica is of uncommon interest. A single fruit- 
ing plant in the above collection is worthy of a brief description, as the sporo- 
phyte has, until now, been unknown. 

Sporophyte-bearing plant 2.5 cm. high; stem leaves erect-appressed, comose 
at summit; seta solitary, 5-6 mm. long, sinuose, smooth; capsule immature) 


erect, Symmetrical, 1 mm. long, slightly furrowed when dry; lid erect or 
slightly oblique, about 0.65 mm. high; peristome and calyptra unknown. 


1 Received April 25, 1931. 


JULY 19, 1931 BARTRAM: COSTA RICAN MOSSES 289 


POTTIACEAE 
MERCEYA AGOYANENSIS (Mitt.) Broth. 

Voledn Barba, alt. 2500 m., Dec. 16, 1930, M. Valerio no. 343. 

So far as I know, this is the first species of Merceya to be recorded from trop- 
ical North America. The plants are somewhat larger than those of the type 
collection of M. agoyanensis, of Ecuador, which I have seen through the 
kindness of Mr. R. 8. Williams, but the shape and structure of the leaves are 
identical in every particular. 


RHAMPHIDIUM MACROSTEGIUM (Sull.) Mitt. 


Chitaria, Province of Cartago, alt. 700 m., Dec. 20, 1928, M. Valerio 
no. 229a. 


Previously known from the Antilles and South America but new to 
Costa Rica. 


Leptodontium Orcutti Bartr., sp. nov. 
Figures 8-12 


Dioicous? male flowers not seen. Stems up to 1.5 em. long, densely caes- 
pitose, yellowish-green above, pale-brown below, more or less pale-tomentose 
except at the tips, flexuose, simple or branched; leaves crowded toward the 
tips, more distant below, appressed with incurved slightly crisped points 
when dry, spreading to squarrose-recurved when moist, oblong-ligulate, 
sheathing at the base, carinate-concave above, abruptly acute, about 2 mm. 
long by 0.5 mm. wide; margin slightly reflexed in the middle, crenulate with 
projecting papillae, flat and spinulose-serrate above; costa pale-yellow, about 
75u wide, vanishing just below the apex, convex and minutely papillose on 
the back above; basal leaf cells rectangular, smooth with yellowish pellucid 
walls, shorter and subquadrate at the margins, quickly becoming shorter 
and papillose upward, upper cells rounded-hexagonal, 7-10u in diameter, 
rather obscure, densely papillose with numerous low papillae, not or hardly 
incrassate except toward the margins where 4-6 rows are rather strongly 
incrassate with irregularly thickened pellucid walls; perichaetial leaves similar 
to the stem leaves, about 3 mm. long, the inner erect and strongly sheathing; 
seta about 12 mm. long, pale yellow; capsule erect or slightly inclined, cylin- 
drical, 1.5—2 mm. long, stramineous, exothecal cells rectangular, thin-walled, 
delicate and pale except 5-7 rows around the mouth which are subhexagonal 
or transversely rectangular with dark, reddish-brown incrassate walls; peri- 
stome about 0.2 mm. long, of 16 pale, obliquely papillose-striate teeth, divided 
to the base into 2 linear, somewhat confluent forks; lid erect, conic-rostrate, 
0.5 mm. long; calyptra not seen; spores greenish-brown, granulose, 14-18u 
in diameter. 

Type: Mineral del Chico, State of Hidalgo, Mexico, May 16, 1925, C. R. 
Orcutt no. 6731. 

Other collections: Mexico: Pont de la Venta, Valle de Mexico, Bro. Arséne 
no. 1391. North Carolina; Chestnut Bald, Holz. Muse. Ac. Bor.-Amer. no. 
264. Costa Rica; Volean Irazt, alt. 3300 m., M. Valerio no. 293. 


This species approaches L. flexifolium, of Europe, very closely but seems to 
be consistently distinct in several important particulars. The leaves are 


» 


290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 13 


more broadly bordered with thick-walled cells often 5-6 rows wide, the cap- 
sule is paler in color, the exothecal cells are thin-walled, and the peristome teeth 
are obliquely papillose-striate. The plants collected by Dr. Grout in North 
Carolina, and issued by Holzinger as no. 264 of his exsiccati, under the name 
Didymodon flexifolius, while sterile, are indistinguishable from the Mexican 
and Costa Rican collections, and I am satisfied that they should be referred 
here rather than to the European species, which does not seem to occur in 
North America. 

Sterile plants of this species were received from my good friend M. Thériot 
as an undescribed species of Leptodontiwm, from Bro. Arséne’s Mexican 
collections, but as Orcutt’s specimen was in good fruiting condition M. 
Thériot generously suggested that his own name be suppressed. 


_Leptodontium filescens (Hampe) Mitt. var. denticulatum Bartr., var. nov. 
Figures 1-7 


More robust than the species, with longer, more sharply denticulate leaves, 
more rounded upper leaf cells, and setae up to 18 mm. long. 

Type: Southern slope of the Volcdn de Turrialba, near the Finca del 
Voledn de Turrialba, Costa Rica, alt. 2000-2400 m., Feb. 22, 1924, Paul C. 
Standley no. 35160a. c. fr. 

Other collections: near the type locality, Standley no. 34953; near Finca la 
Cima, above Los Lotes, north of El Copey, Standley no. 42777; Volcan Pods, 
alt. 2500 m., M. Valerio nos. 284 & 285a. 

These Costa Rican specimens do not seem to differ structurally from the 
species but they are uniformly coarser. The stem leaves are up to 2.5 mm. 
long, sharply denticulate toward the apex, and the setae are about twice as 
long as in the type collection of the species from Colombia. Numerous axil- 
lary claviform or cylindrical, septate gemmae occur in all of the collections 
representing both the type and the variety. 


TORTULA MINIFOLIA (Sull.) Mitt. 


Chitaria, Province of Cartago, alt. 700 m., Dec. 20,1928, M. Valerio no. 221. 
Previously known from Cuba, Bolivia and Peru but new to Costa Rica. 


BRYACEAE 
STABLERIA OSCULATIANA (DeNot.) Broth. 


Voledn Irazt, alt. 3300 m., April 7, 1929, M. Valerio nos. 302 & 307. 

I have referred these collections to the above species rather than to S. 
tenella (Mitt.) Broth. as the setae are all decidedly longer than the leaves. 
Specimens of the latter species in the writer’s herbarium and in the herbarium 
of the New York Botanical Garden show considerable variation in this respect 
and it may, eventually, be necessary to reduce them to one species, in which 
event, S. osculatiana, being the older name, would be retained. 


MIELICHHOFERIA PRATICOLA Card. 


Volean Irazt, alt. 3300 m., April 7, 1929, M. Valerio no. 303. Previously 
known only from Mexico. 


JULY 19, 1931 BARTRAM: 


COSTA RICAN MOSSES 


A oe) 


E poe 9° 


as Boas b SS pos 

et 
IRR DOR 
weer OR 


21 


Figures 1-7. Leptodontium filescens (Hampe) Mitt. var. denticulatum Bartr., var. nov. 
1.—Fertile plant X 1. 2.—Sterilestem X1. 3.—Stemleaf X9. 4.—Upper leaf margin 
< 240. 5.—Upper leaf cells X 240. 6 and 7.—Gemmae  X 40. 


Figures 8-12. Leptodontium Orcutti Bartr., sp. nov. 8.—Fertile plant X 1. 9.— 
Stem leaf X 17. 10.—Part of peristome X 240. 


11.—Lower leaf cells X 240. 12.— 
Upper leaf cells and margin X 240. ; 

Figures 13-19. Brachymenium filescens Bartr., sp. nov. 
novation X 5. 15.—Leaf of innovation X 40. 16.—Upper leaf cells x 240. 17.—Basal 
angle of leaf X 240. 18.=Capsule X 12. 19.—Part of peristome xX 80. 

Figures 20-25. Acanthocladium costaricense Dix and Bartr., sp.nov. 20.—Plant X 1. 


21.—Stem leaf X 40. 22.—Basal angle of stem leaf X 240. 23.—Branchleaf X40 24.— 
Apex of branch leaf X 240. 25.—Basal angle of branch leaf * 240. 


13.—Plants X 1. 14.—In- 


291 


292 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 13 


Brachymenium filescens Bartr., sp. nov. 
Figures 13-19 


Dioicous? male flowers not seen. Plants slender, loosely caespitose, sordid 
yellowish-green, slightly glossy. Stems short, radiculose below, with slender 
flexuose innovations up to 1 cm. long; leaves of the innovations appressed, 
ovate-oblong, acute, concave, 0.6—-0.7 mm. long by 0.3 mm. or less wide; upper 
leaf cells linear-rhomboidal, thin walled, 60-75 u long by 12-15u wide, nar- 
rower toward the margins but not forming a distinct border, shorter toward 
the base, several rows just above the insertion subquadrate; margin erect, 
entire below, usually minutely denticulate toward the apex; costa lutescent, 
percurrent or minutely excurrent; perichaetial leaves similar but slightly 
longer; seta red, slender, flexuose, about 14 mm. long; capsule erect or slightly 
inclined, 1.5-1.8 mm. long, claviform, reddish, gradually contracted to a 
slightly suleate neck; peristome double, the inner a yellowish papillose tube 
without segments, about one third the height of the linear, papillose, well 
spaced teeth, annulus present; lid obtusely conic, about 0.3 mm. -high; calyp- 
tra unknown; spores smooth, 10—12u in diameter. 

Type: Cebadilla, Province of Alajuela, Costa ey alt. 700 m., Nov. 14, 
1928, M. Valerio no. 209. 

This species is probably nearest B. murale Schp. and B. vinulosum Card. 
from Mexico, in the Section Dzcranobryum, but differs from both in the long 
flexuose innovations with closely appressed leaves. The percurrent or excur- 
rent costa is also a distinctive character as compared with B. murale while the 
longer areolation and longer marginal cells preclude any confusion with the 


other species. 
Bryum CruGcErRI Hampe 


Chitaria, Province of Cartago, alt. 700 m., Dec. 20, 1928, M. Valerio 
no. 222. 

EUSTICHIACEAE 
EusTICcHIA SPRUCEANA (C.M.) Par. 

Piedra Blanca, Province of San José, alt. 2100 m., April 28, 1929, M. 
Valerio no. 310. 

This unique moss has very much the appearance of a Fissidens to the oaiked 
eye. Although it has been found in Ecuador and Bolivia, this seems to be the 
first record for North America. A critical comparison with EF. miradorica 
(C. M.) Par. would be very desirable but Dr. Reimers has informed me that, 
unfortunately, no specimen of the Mexican plant can be located in the her- 
barium of the Botanical Museum in Berlin-Dahlem. 


BARTRAMIACEAE 
BARTRAMIA COSTARICENSIS C.M. 
Voledn Irazit, alt. 3300 m., April 7, 1929, M. Valerio nos. 305-308. 


Both collections are sterile but the vegetative characters correspond very 
well with Miiller’s description. 


JULY 19, 1931 BARTRAM: COSTA RICAN MOSSES 293 


PHILONOTIS CRASSINERVIA Broth. & Par. 

Santa Cruz, Province of Guanacaste, alt. 50 m., Dec. 24, 1928, M. Valerio 
no. 243; La Hstrella, Province of Cartago, alt. 1700 m., in water, Jan. 26, 1929, 
Valerio no. 260. 

Previously known only from Colombia. 


HOOKERIACEAE 
DALTONIA TENUIFOLIA Mitt. 
San José, Province of San José, alt. 1135 m., Nov. 30, 1928, M. Valerio 


no. 205a. 
An interesting northward range extension of a rare South American species. 


BRACHYTHECIACEAE 
BRACHYTHECIUM LAXIRETICULATUM Card. 
Voledn Irazu, alt. 3300 m., April 7, 1929, M. Valerio nos. 300 & 301. 
These collections match very closely the Mexican species to which they 
have been provisionally referred. 


FABRONIACEAE 
FABRONIA FLAVINERVIS C.M. 
Santa Ana, alt. 900 m., June 15, 1929, M. Valerio nos. 325, 326, 327, 328, 


PLAGIOTHECIACEAE 
STEREOPHYLLUM CULTELLIFORME Sull. 


Chitaria, Province of Cartago, alt. 700 m., Dec. 20, 1928, M. Valerio no. 238 

New to Costa Rica. | 

In this connection an opportunity is offered to correct a signal error which 
Mrs. Britton has kindly called to my attention. The Honduras plants de- 
scribed under the name of Rhynchostegium patulum Bartr. (3) undoubtedly 
belong in Stereophyllum and are exceedingly close to and probably identical 
with S. cultelliforme. 'The inflorescence of this species is clearly autoicous 
and not dioicous as given by Brotherus in both editions of the Natiirlichen 
Pflanzenfamilien. 


& 
STEREOPHYLLUM LEUCOSTEGIUM (Brid.) Mitt. 


Santa Cruz, Province of Guanacaste, alt. 50 m., Dec. 24, 1928, M. Valerio 
no. 242. 


SEMATOPHYLLACEAE 
APTCHELLA AMERICANA (Card.) Broth. 


Volean Barba, alt. 2700 m., Dec. 16, 1930, M. Valerio no. 350. 

Cardot originally described this species from Mexico. It was subsequently 
collected by Mrs. Britton in Jamaica and Prof. Valerio’s collection now 
extends its known range to Costa Rica. The characteristic propagulae at the 
tips of the branches are very abundant in the Costa Rican plants but the 
sporophyte is still unknown. 


294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 13 


Acanthocladium costaricense Dix. & Bartr., sp. nov. 
Figures 20-25 


Plants in extensive, pale yellowish-brown glossy mats. Stems elongate, 
wiry, prostrate, proliferously branched; branches ascending, bipinnate, the 
ultimate branches somewhat flattened, curved and crisped when dry; leaves 
dimorphous, stem leaves erect-appressed with slightly curved or subfaleate 
points, ovate, short-acuminate, entire or minutely denticulate, about 1 mm. 
long by 0.5 mm. wide; margin more or less narrowly reflexed, branch leaves 
rather complanate, much smaller than the stem leaves, oblong-lanceolate, 
bluntly acute, denticulate above the middle, 0.4-0.5 mm. long by about 0.13 
mm. wide; leaf cells smooth, echlorophyllose, the upper linear, 35—40u long 
by 38—4u wide, a few rows at the extreme base shorter, slightly incrassate and 
porose, alar cells few, oblong, golden-brown or hyaline, supra-alar cells smaller, 
subquadrate to oblong, hyaline or colored, nerve very short and double or — 
wanting. 


Type: On tree, vicinity of Santa Maria de Dota, Province of San José, 
Costa Rica, alt. 1500-1800 m., Dec. 26, 1925—-Jan. 3, 1926, Paul C. Standley & 
Juvenal Valerio no. 43395. 

Although the fruit of this moss is unknown the general habit and vegetative 
characters correspond very closely to those of the genus Acanthocladium. If 
this inference is correct the extension of such a purely austral genus into the 
range of the North American moss flora is especially noteworthy. <A. sub- 
nitidum (Hampe) Broth., from Colombia, suggested a likely comparison and 
I am indebted to Mr. H. N. Dixon for the following comments which were 
made after comparing the Costa Rican moss with the type collection of the 
Colombian species in the Hampe herbarium. 

“HH. subnitidum is much more robust and rigid, both in branches and leaves. 
Nearly all the branches taper to a straight, rigid, narrow, cuspidate, micro- 
phyllous flagellum. The leaves are considerably larger, broader below, longly 
and finely acuminate and scarcely glossy. Branches all straight.’ 


SEMATOPHYLLUM CUSPIDIFERUM Mitt. 


La Hondura, Province of San José, alt. 1400 m., Jan. 15, 1929, M. Valerio 
no. 270. 


The robust habit and filiform-acuminate leaves distinguish this collection 
from any of the S. caespitosum group. 
HYPNACEAE 
ISOPTERYGIUM FECUNDUM R. & C. 
Volcan Pods, alt. 2500 m., Feb. 7, 1929, M. Valerio no. 285. 


LITERATURE CITED 


(1) Bartram, E. B. Costa Rican mosses collected by Paul C. Standley in 1924—1926. 
Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. 26, Part 3. 1928. 

(2) Bartram, E. B. Additional Costa Rican mosses. This JoURNAL 19: 11-27. 1929. 

(3) Bartram, E.B. Field Mus of Nat. Hist., Bot. Ser. 4, No.9, 359. 1929. 


JULY 19, 1931 BERRY: BOTHRODENDRON FROM BOLIVIA 295 


PALEOBOTANY.—A Bothrodendron from Bolivia.:. Epwarp W. 
BERRY, Johns Hopkins University. 


In a small collection of miscellaneous trails, fucoids (?), etc. from 
southeastern Bolivia submitted to me last year by C. F. Bowen of the 
Standard Oil Company of New Jersey there are three clearly marked 
specimens belonging to the Lepidophyte genus Bothrodendron, con- 
stituting, so far as I know, the first authentic record of this genus in 
South America. 

The matrix varies from gray to rusty, and from a mudstone to a 
highly micaceous thin-bedded sandstone carrying flakes and patches 
of carbonized plant tissue. The Bothrodendron material occurs in the 
latter type of sediment and comes from two near-by localities—Que- 
brada Caigua and Quebrada Caiguami. All three specimens are small, 


Figures 1 and 2.—Bothrodendron sp. 


the two largest being figured. Two of these, including the original 
of fig. 1 are flattened patches of cuticle with the leaf bases as holes. 
The original of fig. 2 is an impression of a small branch preserving con- 
siderable of its original form. In fig. 1 the leaf scars are elliptical, 
about 1 millimeter wide and 1.5 millimeters long and are arranged in 
alternating whorls with a spacing, both transverse and longitudinal, 
of about 2.5 millimeters. The specimen exposes the inside of the 
cuticle so that the surface features are not visible. It does not, how- 
ever, show any traces of ribbing. In the small axis shown in fig. 2, 
which is about 1.5 centimeters across, the leaf scars are slightly larger, 
more nearly circular, slightly farther apart, and somewhat elevated. 
The surface ornamentation is obsolete, but there is a distinct, although 


1 Received May 21, 1931. 


296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 13 


faint, indication of slight ribbing. There is no reason to suppose that 
all three specimens do not belong to the same species. 

This Bolivian Bothrodendron is not represented by extensive enough 
or complete enough material to warrant giving it a specific name so 
that it may be known simply as Bothrodendron sp. Indeed the specific 
limits of the fifteen to twenty species of Bothrodendron that have been 
described are, for the most part, rather vague, and certainly not reli- 
able. Haughton originally described three species from the classic 
upper Devonian locality at Kiltorcan, Ireland, but Johnson? has rather 
clearly indicated the probability that but a single botanical species is 
represented at that locality, and Nathorst in particular has figured 
much good material from the upper Devonian of Bear Island illustrat- 
ing the natural variation and the differences in appearance due to age 
and state of preservation. 

As far as appearances go the Bolivian form appears to me to be most 
like Bothrodendron kiltorkense (Haughton) Kidston among the de- 
scribed species. A priori the likelihood that a single botanical species 
should range from Bear Island in the Arctic to Bolivia and New South 
Wales seem highly improbable, and conclusions from this resemblance 
regarding the age of the Bolivian deposit can not be regarded as con- 
clusive. On the other hand the lack of known Lower Carboniferous 
(Mississippian) sediments in South America, and the abundance of 
shallow water lower and middle Devonian, lends probability to the 
conclusion that Bothrodendron sp. is of Devonian age. ‘The sediments 
carrying it are referred to the Iquiri formation which is considered to 
be of Devonian, and probably upper Devonian, age. | 

Although Bothrodendron and its allies agree rather closely in habits 
and anatomy with some of the other Lepidophytes there is good ground 
for considering them as representing a distinct family—the Bothro- 
dendraceae—which is, in some respects, intermediate between the 
Lepidodendraceae and the Sigillariaceae, being rather more like some 
of the former in anatomical features, and more like some of the latter 
in external features. Some of the fructifications attributed to the 
Bothrodendraceae resemble Lepidostrobus and others, Bothrostrobus, 
lack the sporophyll elongation so characteristic of the Lepidoden- 
draceae and Sigillariaceae. The Bothrodendraceae are also somewhat 
earlier in their inception, for although they extend through the Car- 
boniferous, they appear earlier and are relatively more abundant dur- 
ing the later Devonian and Lower Carboniferous (Mississippian). 

The name Bothrodendron was proposed by Lindley & Hutton in 1833 


2 T. Johnson, Sci. Proc. Royal Dublin Soc., vol. 12, No. 34, 1913; vol. 14, No. 13, 1914. 


JULY 19, 1931 BERRY: BOTHRODENDRON FROM BOLIVIA 297 


with Bothrodendron punctatum as the genotype, a species marked by 
Ulodendron-like crateriform scars, now usually considered to represent 
the scars of deciduous branches. In 1860 Haughton proposed the 
generic term Cyclostigma (genotype C. kiltorkense) for material from 
the Irish upper Devonian, and in 1876 Boulay proposed the generic 
term Rhytidodendron (genotype R. minutifolium) for French material. 
It is only in more recent years that the generic identity of these has 
been accepted. The number of species is uncertain since many are 
founded wholly on external characters and insufficient material, and 
the appearance varies considerably with age. The leaf scars are 
always small, some show ligules and others do not, some show a central 
leaf-trace scar and two parachnoi, and others do not. The genus 
is especially abundant in the upper Devonian of Bear Island—the so- 
called Ursa stage of Heer—once believed to be intermediate in age 
between Devonian and Lower Carboniferous. It occurs in the Devo- 
nian of North America and Europe, in the Devonian or Lower Car- 
boniferous of Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia, but has not hereto- 
fore been certainly collected in South America. In this connection 
attention should be called to the species Lycopodiopsis derby: Renault? 
from the Brazilian coal measures, which is superficially similar to 
Bothrodendron. 

Seward‘ recorded in 1922 a Bothrodendron (?) sp. from the Carbonif- 
erous of Paracas, Peru, the age of which he was inclined to regard as 
Lower Carboniferous. Gothan® has also discussed the flora from this 
locality in a recent publication, and has referred Seward’s form to 
what he calls Bothrodendron pacificum Steinmann. Judging from the 
figures alone the Peruvian plant does not suggest Bothrodendron to me, 
and in any case it is not the same as the specimens under discussion. 

In 1922 I described* much the largest collection of plants that was 
ever made at Paracas, personally collected, and after studying the 
local section and those around Lake Titicaca reached the conclusion 
that the age was not older than the Westphalian stage of the Upper 
Carboniferous. I see no reason for changing this opinion despite what 
can not but seem like-a belated attempt on the part of Gotham to 
validate the original guess of Steinmann regarding the age. ) 

Particular interest attaches to the other antipodean occurrences of 


3 David White, Final Rept. Brazilian Coal Comm., p. 487, pl. 5, fig. 11, 1908. 

4 A.C. Seward, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 78, p. 281, pl. 13, fig. 9 and text 
fig., 1922. 

5 W. Gothan, Neues Jahrb. Beil. Bd. 59, Abt. B, p. 296, pl. 12, fig. 2, 1928. 

6K. W. Berry, Johns Hopkins Univ. Studies in Geology No. 4, pp. 9-42, pls. 1-8, 1922. 


298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 13 


Bothrodendron in Africa and Australia, and-it is unfortunate that this 
material, like that from Bolivia, is not good enough for precise compari- 
sons. It is, perhaps, significant that both the African (Bothrodendron 
leslii Seward) and Australian (Cyclostigma australe Feistmantel) forms 
have been compared with Bothrodendron kiltorkense. As far as com- 
parisons are possible with the poor material that served as the type of 
Cyclostigma australe’ the Bolivian material could be referred to the 
same species, but in view of the nature of the remains this resemblance 
may have no significance. 


ZOOLOGY.—A Microfilaria from the blood of a wild rabbit. 
BENJAMIN ScHwaRtTz and JosePH E. Auicata, Bureau of Animal 
Industry, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. 


Jnder date of April 2, 1931, Dr. C. M. Hamilton, of the Western 
Washington Experiment Station, Puyallup, Washington, forwarded 
to the Bureau of Animal Industry at Washington, D. C., two blood 
smears, with the following comments: 

‘“‘A farmer in Arlington, Washington, found a rabbit in a stupor, and 
when it died later he mailed it to us for examination. There were four 
ticks, including one female specimen, on the back of the neck. Post- 
mortem examination revealed nothing except a congested liver. How- 
ever, in blood smears from the heart, parasites resembling nematodes 
were noted. Blood taken from the heart and diluted with distilled 
water showed these parasites to be alive.” 

On further inquiry, Dr. Hamilton advised the writers that the host 
in question was Lepus washington. 

A microscopic examination of the two blood.smears, one of which 
had been stained with methylene blue and the other with Wright’s | 
stain, revealed the presence of microfilariae, in addition to blood cells. 
The former appeared to be sufficiently well stained to enable the writers 
to make out the morphological details commonly recognizable in well 
stained preparations containing microfilariae. 

Although the specific identity of filarids cannot always be depen 
on the basis of their larval characters, it is not improbable that the 
microfilariae in question are the immature forms of Dirofilaria scapiceps 
(Leidy 1886), the only filarid known from North American rabbits. 
However, the final determination of the identity of these microfilarids 


7 QO. Feistmantel, Palaeontographica, Suppl. 3, p. 70, pi. 1, fig. 6, 1878. 
1 Received May 8, 1931. 


JULY 19, 1931 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: MICROFILARIA 299 


will have to be based on investigations of the further development of 
these larvae in suitable mosquito or other arthropod intermediate 
hosts, and on the subsequent transmission of the infective larvae to 
rabbits through the bites of the infected intermediate host. For the 
time being the larvae in question are assigned to the collective genus 
Microfilaria Cobbold, 1880. 


Figure 1.—Microfilaria species from Lepus washingtonii. a, anus; e.c., excretory cell; 
€.p., excretory pore; g!, g?, g°, g*, first, second, third, and fourth germ cells, respectively; 
g.m., granular mass; 7n.7., nerve ring; sh., sheath. 


-Microfilaria species (? DIROFILARIA SCAPICEPS) 
Figure 1 


In common with many other microfilariae from the blood of mammals, 
each larva is enclosed and retracted in a sheath. The larvae are from 303yu 
to 340u long and 8u in maximum width. The morphological details are as 
figured. The anterior extremity is bluntly rounded; the body is of more or 
less uniform width up to a point somewhat anterior to the first germ cell, 


300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 13 


where it begins to taper gradually and terminates in a long slender tail with 
a pointed tip. The stained specimens show numerous nuclei and a number 
of unstained areas. A small area immediately posterior to the head end is 
unstained. Another unstained area, which extends across the width of the 
body and is located at a distance of from 66 to 70u from the anterior extremity, 
is the nerve ring. Ata distance of from 22 to 29u posterior to the nerve ring 
is the first so-called V-shaped spot which contains an opening to the outside; 
this is the excretory pore (e. p.). Immediately behind the excretory pore is 
the excretory cell (e. c.). At the point corresponding approximately to the 
middle of the body is the commencement of the so-called germinal mass 
(g. m.) which occupies an area about 40u long and is characterized by the 
presence of minute granules; comparatively few nuclei are present in the field 
occupied by the granular mass. The nucleus of the first germ cell (g') is 
located at a distance of approximately 66u from the posterior extremity; the 
remaining three germ cells (g?, g’, g*) are smaller than and posterior to the 


TABLE 1. DIMENSIONS AND PROPORTIONS OF MICROFILARIA SP. IN THE HEART BLOOD 
oF LEPUS WASHINGTONII AT ARLINGTON, WASH. 


| | | 


(1) Length (without sheath).............. 340 315 320 303 315 
@)aiMirasxamaumawidiGle oes ne 8 aes oe ee 8 8 8 8 8 
(3) Distance from anterior extremity to 

ERVEMEIM Gee tcc eee Reese Meee 70 66 66 70 70 
(4) Distance from nerve ring to excretory 

DOLE Fee se Re eee ete ann 29 26 24 22 25 
(5) eHength ofitail A ee ee ee 44 42 47 37 40 
(6) Percentage of body length anterior to 

NEGVE TIME Sch eye cee ee 20.5 20.9 20.6 23.1 22).2 
(7) Percentage of body length anterior to 

excretory POLres 04.) eet) eels: 29.1 29).2 28.1 30.3 30.1 
(8) Difference between (7) and (6)........ 8.6 8.3 7.5 U5 7.9 
(9) Percentage of body length anterior to 

ENT AeA eR tae eR ON TSS Mae 87.1 86.7 85.4 87.8 87.4 


first one, and are located in a row one behind the other. The second un- 
stained V-shaped spot contains an opening to the outside; this is the anal 
opening (a). The tail is from 37 to 44u long and contains very few stained 
elements. 

Table 1 shows the principal measurements, in microns, of five larvae, and 
certain size relationships in percentages. ‘The specimens (two slides) are 
U. S. National Museum No. 30,105. 


Microfilariae are known from the blood of various rodents, such as 
rabbits, ground squitrels, porcupines, and rats. Some of the forms 
which are known from these hosts are listed in a paper by Hall (1916). 
The occurrence of microfilariae in rabbits in North America was men- 
tioned by Harken (1927) in a note dealing with the fluctuation in 
numbers of rabbits in Canada. ‘This author states: ‘‘Specimen con- 
sisting of hind leg of rabbit was infected with Coenurus serialis which 


JULY 19, 1931 CUSHMAN: NEW BRACONICAE 301 


is an intermediate stage of a tapeworm, the other host of which is the 
dog tribe. The carcass was in poor condition for critical work but some 
microfilaria (microscopic worms) were found in the blood and some 
indication of the presence of protozoa.”’ No further details concerning 
the microfilariae found in rabbits are given in Harken’s brief report. 

A species of microfilaria from a rabbit in Algeria, probably Lepus 
sefranus, specifically distinct from the worm discussed in this paper, 
was described by Foley, Catanei and Vialatte (1926), and regarded by 
these writers as probably identical with a microfilaria described by 
Balfour (1911) from a rabbit, probably Lepus hawkeri, from the Anglo- 
Egyptian Soudan, and also apparently identical with the larvae of 
Filaria numidica Seurat, 1917, from the abdominal cavity of Lepus 
pallidor and L. kabylicus of Algeria. 

Considering the medical importance of filariasis and the need for 
further investigations on the therapeusis and other aspects of this 
disease, the occurrence of microfilariae in rabbits in North America, 
definitely established by the data presented in this paper, opens up the 
possibility of transmitting filariasis to domestic rabbits experimentally. 
In the event that this can be accomplished, it will facilitate investi- 
gations on the treatment and on various phases of the biology of filarial 
infections. 


REFERENCES 


ANDREW Batrour. Veterinary notes. Fourth Report of Wellcome Tropical Research 
Laboratories, A, 343-352. 1911. 

H. Fotry, A. CaTaNnetr, and Cu. ViauaTTe. Microfilaires du sang de quelques animaux 
d’Algérie. Arch. de l’Inst. Pasteur d’Algérie 4: 485-518. 1926. 

M.C. Hauu. Nematode parasites of mammals of the orders Rodentia, Lagomorpha, and 
Hyracoidea. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 60: 1-208. 1916. 

J.B. Harken. The fluctuation in the abundance of rabbits. Canadian Field Naturalist 
AS: | 1927. 

L.G.Spmurat. Une nouvelle filaire péritoneale des rongeurs. Compt.-Rend. des Séances 
de la Soc. de Biol. 80: 350-357. 1917. 


ENTOMOLOGY .—Three new Braconidae parasitic on bark beeties.! 
R. A. CusuMan, Bureau of Entomology. (Communicated by 
Haroup Morrison.) 

The three new species described below have all been reared in con- 
nection with studies of certain bark beetles, carried on by agents of 
the Bureau of Entomology. Of particular interest is the Meteorus, 
since most of the species of this genus are parasitic on lepidopter- 
ous larvae. 


1 Received May 19, 1931. 


302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 13 


Meterous hypophloei, new species. 


In Muesebeck’s key to North American species? this species runs best 
to fumipennis Muesebeck. From that species it may be immediately dis- 
tinguished by its stouter thorax, coarsely sculptured hind coxae, more slender 
subapical flagellar joints, and generally darker color, and by other details. 
Specimens with the wings less distinctly infumate will run to humilis (Cres- 
son), differing in the longer malar space, much longer and more slender anten- 
nae, thicker head, smaller ocelli, and shorter ovipositor. | 


Female—Length 3.5 mm. Head thick, not or barely twice as broad as 
thick medially, full behind the eyes; ocelli placed well in front of posterior 
tangent of eyes, very minute, the diameter of a lateral ocellus only about one- 
sixth the length of the ocell-ocular line; face nearly twice as broad as long, its 
shortest breadth subequal to the length of the eye; malar space fully as long 
as basal width of mandible; clypeus nearly twice as broad as long, arcuately 
emarginate at apex; vertex and temples polished, frons laterally punctate, 
face minutely rugulose opaque; antennae very nearly as long as body, slender, 
about 28-jointed, all flagellar joints longer than thick, Thorax hardly two 
and a half times as long as broad; notauli strong and meeting behind in a 
coarsely sculptured depression, prescutum densely punctate, lateral lobes 
polished; scutellum small, triangular, strongly convex, smooth and polished; 
propodeum irregularly reticulate rugose with more or less distinct median 
and basal carinae, posterior face impressed but only obsoletely outlined; 
thorax laterally, except small polished areas on mesopleurum, rugulose opaque; 
second abscissa of radius about twice as long as first; cubitus originating very 
close to parastigma; lower abscissa of basella about as long as nervellus; legs 
slender; hind coxae roughened and opaque. Abdomen about two and one- 
half times as long as broad; first tergite less than twice as long as broad at apex, 
obscurely longitudinally striate, with deep pits dorsally, the lateral edges 
nearly parallel; sheath a little more than half as long as abdomen, very 
slender, ovipositor slightly decurved. 

Piceous black, with head and legs largely, pronotum and middle and ex- 
treme base of abdomen more reddish, the face and lower part of head and 
mandibles ferruginous; coxae sometimes nearly black; wings faintly infumate, 
more strongly so about junction of basal and median carinae and about base 
of radius, stigma blackish, pale at base, tegulae reddish. 

Male.—Head even thicker than in female with temples and cheeks more 
strongly rounded; face distinctly broader than length of eye; abdomen about 
three times as long as broad; otherwise like female. 

Host.—Hypophloeus sp. 

Type-locality—Metaline Falls, Wash. 

Type.—Cat. No. 43,634, U.S.N.M. 


Described from 13 females and 5 males reared April 25 to July 30, 1930, 
by Donald DeLeon under Hopkins U. 8. No. 19758 from the larvae of the 
host species in western white pine trees killed by Dendroctonus monti- 
colae Hopk. 


2 Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 68, art. 2, 1923. 


JULY 19, 1931 CUSHMAN: NEW BRACONIDAE 303 


Coeloides dendroctoni, new species. 


Female.—Length 4 mm. or less. Head nearly as broad behind eyes as at 
eyes, the temples strongly convex, the width from front to back about equal 
to that of eye; the so-called ‘‘mouth opening” much narrower than its distance 
from the eye and about as broad as length of malar space; malar space about 
half as long as eye; face minutely punctate; clypeal groove distinct medially; 
antennae slender, third joint of flagellum hardly concave below, very nearly 
as long as fourth, the latter fully twice as long as thick. Thorax weakly 
depressed, polished and virtually unsculptured throughout, only the meta- 
pleurum sparsely punctate; scutellar fovea minutely foveolate; stigma broad, 
radius slightly before middle; second cubital cell long, the second abscissa of 
radius much longer than first intercubitus and parallel with second abscissa 
of cubitus. First tergite much longer than broad, finely rugulose, the lateral 
furrows foveolate, the median area about three times as broad as the lateral 
rims; second tergite shorter than third, more or less emarginate in apical 
middle, more or less rugose medially and with a more or less distinct raised 
area in basal middle; sheath about three-fourths as long as body (relatively 
longer in small specimens). 

Head black, orbits, cheeks, malar space, mandibles, and clypeus testaceous; 
labium, maxillae, palpi, and antennae black; thorax and legs black, trochanters 
and apices of front femur and tibia more or less reddish, postscutellum and a 
median streak on propodeum also more or less reddish; abdomen usually 
testaceous with only the first tergite black, in small specimens more or less 
blackish with tergites 2 and 3 pale or largely brownish black. 

Male.—Essentially like female, but more frequently with abdomen largely 
blackish and often with apex and lateral areas of scutellum stramineous. 

Type-locality—Sula, Montana. 

Type.—Cat. No. 43,635, U.S.N.M. 

Hosts.—Dendroctonus monticolae Hopk.; Ips oregoni (Eich.). 


Described from 32 females and 21 males reared by D. DeLeon of the Bureau 
of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, at type-locality 
(Hopkins U. 8S. Nos. 19676 [type], 19677, 19654, 19669 [allotype], 19607, 
19653, 19679, 19673, 19675, 19660, 19661, 19668, 19670, 17269, 17270, 17271, 
17272, 17273); Troy (Hopkins U.S. No. 19665) and Anaconda (Hopkins U.S. 
No. 19684), Montana; Spencer (Hopkins U. 8. No. 19682), Idaho, and Meta- 
line Falls (Hopkins U. 8. No. 19801), Washington; and by J. E. Patterson, 
also of the Bureau of Entomology, at Crater Lake Park, Dugon (Hopkins U.S. 
Nos. 16266a and 16258a). The specimens under Nos. 17269 to 17273 from 
Sula, Montana, are labelled as having doubtfully been reared from J ps oregon. 


Coeloides scolyti, new species. 


Very closely related to brunnerz Viereck and perhaps only a variant of that 
species. Structurally the two species form an almost unbroken variation 
series, scolytz on the average having the thorax a little less depressed, the face 
a little broader, the head a little longer behind the eyes, the first tergite a 
little broader, the second a little more deeply emarginate in the middle, the 
ovipositor a little shorter, and the second abscissa of radius a little shorter as 
compared with the first intercubitus. 


304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 13 


In color the two species are very similar, the head and abdomen being 
ferruginous and the thorax, legs, and antennae black or piceous. But whereas 
brunnerz has the thorax and legs piceous, and the first tergite ferruginous and 
a diffusion of dark color about the ocellar spot especially in the male, in which 
sex nearly the entire vertex and frons are piceous, scolyti has the thorax and 
legs black or very nearly so, the first tergite largely blackish, and the black 
of the head in both sexes confined within the ocellar triangle. 


Female.—Head in dorsal view nearly as long as broad, nearly as broad 
behind eyes as at eyes, temples very strongly convex, antero-posterior width 
distinctly greater than that of eye; “mouth opening’’ narrower than malar 
space, the latter half as long as eye; face minutely punctate, nearly a half 
broader than length of eye; clypeal groove distinct and punctiform medially; 
antennae slender, third joint of flagellum slightly concave ventrally and dis- 
tinetly shorter than fourth, which is more than twice as long as thick. Thorax 
hardly depressed, polished, with only metapleurum sparsely punctate; scutel- 
lar groove minutely foveolate; stigma broad with radius far before middle; 
second cubital cell rather short, the second abscissa of radius at most only a 
little longer than first intercubitus. First tergite about a half longer than broad, 
its sides beyond the spiracles a little bulging, median area obscurely longitudi- 
nally striate; second tergite much shorter than third, deeply emarginate in 
apical middle, with a longitudinal elevation in basal middle, more or less dis- 
tinectly rugulose medially, and with an oblique groove laterally terminating 
near the posterior margin in a distinct lunule; abdomen otherwise polished; 
sheath usually a little longer than body. 

Head and abdomen bright ferruginous, with ocellar spot and first tergite 
except apex black; thorax, legs, and antennae black with legs apically and 
thoracic sutures more or less piceous, apex and lateral areas of scutellum some- 
times pale; wings weakly infumate, venation blackish. 

Male.—Essentially like female. 

Host.—Scolytus spp. 

T ype-locality.— Metaline Falls, Wash. 

Type.—Cat. No. 48,636, U.S.N.M. 


Described from 9 females and 2 males as follows: two females including 
type, Hopkins U. 8. No. 19899-1, from the type-locality, reared July 9, 1930, 
by Donald DeLeon from bark of white fir infested by Scolytus sp.; one female | 
and one male, including allotype, Hopkins U. 8. No. 19972, taken August 5 
and 6, 1930, by D. DeLeon on Abies grandis infested by Scolytus ventralis at 
the type-locality; one male, Hopkins U. 8. No. 19809-1, reared from Scolytus 
(?) in Tsuga August 16, 1930, by same collector and at same locality; three 
females, Hopkins U. S. No. 18146d, taken by F. P. Keen on Abzes concolor 
at Pinehurst, Oregon; one female, Pyramid Ranger Station, Calif., July 22, 
1915, F. B. Herbert; one female, Fallen Leaf, Calif., July 28, 1925, F. B. 
Herbert; and one female, Easton, Wash., Albert Koebele. 


JULY 19, 1931 CHAPIN: ADORETUS LURIDUS 305 


ENTOMOLOGY .—Adoretus.luridus Blanchard and its near relatives 
in the Philippine Islands... Edward A. Chapin, Bureau of Ento- 
mology. (Communicated by Harotp Morrison.) 


Adoretus luridus Blanchard, a beetle of the subfamily Rutelinae of 
the family Scarabaeidae, was described in 1850 from a specimen or 
specimens taken at Manila, Luzon, P. I. The species has since been 
reported from various stations in the Philippines, from Malacca, and 
from southern Indo-China. One specimen from Singapore (C. F. 
Baker), which may belong to this species, is in the National collection. 

A study of the specimens which have been determined in the past 
as this species and which are available to me shows them to fall 
naturally into three groups, characterized by differences in size, struc- 
ture, and, to a degree, in geographical distribution. Starting with 
the belief that the material did actually represent a single species and 
intending to illustrate the variation which was thought to exist in the 
form of the aedeagus, the writer dissected most of the male specimens 
to disclose the chitinous parts of the genitalia. After learning that 
there were three types of aedeagus in the lot, with apparently no 
intergrading specimens, a study of the external anatomy was made. 
Differences, previously overlooked, were noted and the writer was 
forced to the conclusion that three closely related species were 
represented. The three Species agree in the following points: 


Upper surface sparsely and irregularly clad with pale, depressed setae. 
Clypeus broadly, almost semicircularly rounded with its anterior margin 
strongly reflexed, clypeus and frons furnished with aciculate punctures, a 
narrow transverse line across the vertex smooth and without punctures, 
occiput with coarse, transverse punctures. Eyes moderately prominent, 
ocular canthus narrow, reaching back about one-third diameter of eye. Pro- 
notum transverse, about twice as wide as long, marginal bead complete on all 
sides. Elytron with three poorly defined costae, two of these discal, the other 
subhumeral, sutural bead broad. Abdominal sternites each with a transverse 
submarginal row of conspicuous spine-like setae, the row on the sixth sternite 
becoming marginal at the sides. Anterior tibiae with three teeth on outer 
side, middle and posterior tibiae surate, each with two oblique rows of four 
or five spines each. Outer claw of anterior and middle tarsi thickened and 
split at tip, that of posterior tarsus simple. In the descriptions that follow, 
the information given above is not repeated. 


ADORETUS LURIDUS Blanchard. 
Figures 1, 4-9 


Color yellow-brown, head, pronotum (flanks excepted), and elytral suture 
piceous, tarsi castaneous. Clypeo-frontal suture nearly straight. Pronotum 
never less than twice as broad as long, sides subangulately rounded, basal 


1 Received May 19, 1931. 


306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 13 


angles broadly rounded, anterior angles almost right, hardly produced, lateral 
and basal marginal beads narrow, lateral margin finely crenulate, anterior 
marginal bead broad and flat. Punctures coarse and sparse, evenly dis- 
tributed or nearly so. Scutellum with a few coarse punctures. Elytron 
with intercostal spaces densely set with coarse punctures, the punctures 
between the discal costae roughly arranged in four rows. Apical sutural 
angle well-defined but blunt. Pygidium finely but roughly sculptured at 
sides, nearly smooth at middle, pubescence longer and more conspicuous at 
middle, lower margin sinuate, apex subtruncate and slightly reflexed. Upper 
tooth of anterior tibia well-developed. 
Length 9-10.5 mm. 


Apparently a common species at Manila, whence it was originally described. 
Its distribution is to the south and along the south shore of Laguna de Bay. 
Specimens before me are from: Manila Prov., Manila; Cavite Prov., Bacoor; 
Laguna Prov., Los Bafios and Mt. Makiling. While there is some variation 
in the intensity of the coloration (occasionally a specimen with an almost 
entirely pale pronotum occurs), none of the specimens fails to show the dark 
sutural stripe. 


ADORETUS PHILIPPINICUS Pic. 
Figures 2, 10-21 


Similar in general appearance to A. luridus Blanchard but smaller, with 
the antennal club (male) proportionately much longer. Color yellow-brown, 
head, pronotum (except for small spot on flanks), and tarsi piceous, elytra 
often entirely dark but always with a dark suture. Head flat, clypeo-frontal 
suture feebly angulate at middle. Pronotum neyer quite twice as broad as 
long, sides rounded, lateral margins distinctly crenulate, marginal bead com- 
plete, anterior angles almost right, somewhat blunted at apices, basal angles 
effaced. Disc with a very few large punctures, flanks more densely punctured. 
Scutellum rough, without definite punctures. Apical sutural angle of elytron 
very broadly rounded. Pygidium covered with very fine scratches and with 
some very fine punctures, from each of which there arises a yellowish hair. 
Anterior tibia with upper tooth very weakly developed. 

Length 7.5-9 mm. 


A. philippinicus Pic. was described in Le Naturaliste, Ser. 2, Vol. 19, p. 131, 
1905. The species is more northern in its distribution than A. lurzdus 
Blanchard, specimens having been identified from Benguet and Union prov- 
inces, as well as from Manila. The figure of the aedeagus given by Ohaus 
(Deutsche ent. Zeitsch., 1914, p. 472, fig. 1) as of A. luridus Blanchard appears 
to be of this species. The National collection contains specimens from: 
Benguet Prov., Baguio; Union Prov., Bayana; Manila Prov., N. W. shore 
of Laguna de Bay, and Manila. Also four specimens from the Baker collec- 
tion labelled ‘‘Philippines-Schadenberg.”’ 


Adoretus lopezi, new species. 
Figs. 3, 22-27 


Larger and paler than either of the preceding species, distinguished by the 
uniformly pale pronotum, the virtual absence of the sutural stripe on the 


JULY 19, 1931 


CHAPIN: ADORETUS LURIDUS 


307 


22 


23 


24 29 


26 


27 


308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 13 


elytra, by the form of the aedeagus, and by the different geographical dis- 
tribution. Color yellow-brown, head, tarsi, and apices of tibiae darker. 
Head lightly convex, clypeo-frontal suture nearly straight. Pronotum never 
less than twice as broad as long, sides broadly and evenly rounded, lateral 
margins almost entire, basal angles effaced, anterior angles slightly pro- 
duced. Disc convex, anterior half of pronotum sparsely punctured, posterior 
half almost impunctate. Scutellum smooth with a few coarse punctures. 
Pygidium finely wrinkled, clad with fine hairs, those at the middle longer and 
forming a distinct tuft. Upper tooth of anterior tibia strong. 

Length 10-11 mm. 

Type.—U.8.N.M. Cat. No. 43516, a male from La Carlota, Occidental 
Negros, May 17, 1930, A. W. Lopez, collector. Paratypes, three males and 
three females, same data: one male from Negros, May, 1911, C. V. Piper, 
collector; four males from Victorias, Occidental Negros, April 25—May 15, 
W. D. Pierce, collector. 


The more evident differences between the species described above 
are given in the following synopsis. 


1. Antennal club (male) about twice as long as preceding six segments com- 
bined; posterior tibia short, about twice as long as antennal club; 
size small, length not over 9 mm.; Luzon, mostly north of Manila 

philippinicus Pic. 

Antennal club (male) not more than half again as long as preceding six seg- 
ments combined; posterior tibia longer, about three times as long as 
antennal clube. 2 acc eke NES ew J as ca ete 2. 

2. Size moderate, 9-10.5 mm., elytra paler than pronotum but with sutural 

stripe and often with a poorly defined discal area dark, pronotum with 
flanks broadly paler, disc usually dark; Luzon, mostly south of 
Wltarraniliayge ohvv 03 ee, BPS Sise ta eek te cae. Miele eared luridus Blanchard. 

Size slightly larger, 10-11 mm., pronotum and elytra pale, sutural bead hardly 

darker, head sometimes dark, usually castaneous; Negros 
lopezi new species. 


EXPLANATION OF FIGURES 


1. Adoretus luridus Blanchard. Posterior tibia and antenna, Manila, May, 1925, 
R. C. McGregor. 

2. Adoretus philippinicus Pic. Posterior tibia and antenna, Baguio, G. G. Haslam. 

3. Adoretus lopezi n. sp. Posterior tibia and antenna, La Carlota, May 17, 1930, 
A. W. Lopez. 

The following figures are of the distal portion of the aedeagus: 

4-9. Adoretus luridus Blanchard. 4-6, Los Bafios, April 17, F. X. Williams. 7, 
Laguna Province, P. Stangl. 8,9, Bacoor, Cavite Province, P. Stangl. 

10-21. Adoretus philippinicus Pic. 10, Manila, June, 1924, R. C. McGregor. 11, 
Manila, May, 1925, R. C. McGregor. 12, ‘‘Philippines, Schadenberg.”’ 

13-15, Manila Province, 1913, A. M. Reese. 16, Baguio, April 10, 1911, C. V. Piper. 
17-21, Baguio, G. G. Haslam. 

22-27. Adoretus lopezi n. sp. 22, Negros, C. V. Piper. 23, Victorias, April 21, 1928, 
W.D.Pierce. 24, Victorias, May7,1929. 25-27, La Carlota, May 17, 1930, A. W. Lopez. 


JULY 19, 1931 CHAPIN: PHILIPPINE SCARABAEIDAE 309 


ENT OMOLOGY.—New species of melolonthine Scarabaeidae from the 
Philippine Islands... Epwarp A. CuaPin, Bureau of Entomology. 
(Communicated by Harotp Morrison.) 


Of the species described in this paper, all but one originated on the 
island of Negros, an island whose scarabaeid fauna appears to have 
been somewhat neglected in the past. The remaining species, from 
southern Luzon, has been included because of its evident relationship 
to one of the others and because of its very interesting pronotal 
development. 


STEPHANOPHOLIS Brenske. 


This genus contains five species in addition to the one described below. 
Three of these are Ceylonese and are characterized by the presence of but 
five costae on each elytron. The type locality of the genotype, S. melolon- 
thoides Brenske, is doubtful; however, the species agrees with the Philippine 


Figure 1. Stephanopholis lopezin. sp. Aedeagus, side and front views. 
Figure 2. Stephanopholis philippinensis Brenske. Aedeagus, side and front views. 


members of the genus in having fourteen costae on eachelytron. This species 
is described as having a median longitudinal furrow on the ventral face of 
the abdomen which is completely scaled. S. philzppinensis Brenske and S. 
lopezi new species agree in having the scales of the ventral furrow, which is 
not continuous throughout its length, grouped in well-defined oval spots. 


Stephanopholis lopezi new species. 
Figure 1 


Near S. philippinensis Brenske, but distinguished from that species by the 
more robust form, the more uniform elytral costae, and the differences in the 
aedeagus of the male. Head and clypeus coarsely, shallowly, and not densely 
punctured, each puncture bearing a single elongate scale. Pronotum one and 
one-half times as wide as long, laterally angulate, sides parallel from basal 
angles to median angulations, thence strongly convergent to anterior angles 


1 Received May 19, 1921. 


310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 13 


where width is slightly less than median length, lateral margins narrowly 
reflexed. Surface, on either side of the moderately broad and flat, smooth 
median ridge, rather less densely punctured than head, each puncture bearing 
a broadly oval scale. Elytra each with fourteen broad and nearly uniform 
costae, the intervening sulci densely set with small oval scales. Costae 1, 4, 
7, 10, 18, and 14 reaching and joining the basal margin; 5 and 6, also 11 and 
12, anastomosing both anteriorly and posteriorly; 4 and 7, also 3 and 8, form- 
ing complete loops posteriorly; 8 and 9 anastomosing posteriorly. Pygidium 
evenly scaled, sides nearly straight and strongly convergent, apex narrowly 
truncate. Underparts densely clad with small scales, sternites 2, 3, and 4 
polished medianly and each with an oval spot of scales on the median line. 
Legs slender, anterior tibia bidentate, claw with a small sharp tooth just in 
front of the slight basal swelling of lobe. 

Male.—Clypeus more than twice as broad as long (by measurement), 
strongly reflexed, broadly and shallowly emarginate anteriorly, anterior angles 
rounded. Antennal club longer than stem. 

Female.—Clypeus trapezoidal, more than three times as broad as long, 
anterior margin more strongly reflexed at middle where it is slightly notched, 
anterior angles obtuse. Antennal club shorter than stem. 

Length 21-26 mm. 


Type.—U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 43472, a male from La Carlota, Occidental 
Negros, P. I., June, 1980, A. W. Lopez, collector. Paratypes, one male and 
two females, same data. 


The aedeagus is less attenuated in this species (figure 1) than in S. philip- 
pinensis Brenske (figure 2), the tips of the lateral lobes are somewhat oblique, 
and the basal piece lacks the blunt carina as its posterior part. 


Apogonia carlotae new species. 
Figure 3. 


Near A. adoretoides Ritsema but larger and with distinctive differences in 
the aedeagus. Uniform deep piceous brown, evenly clad with short, de- 
pressed, ashy hairs. Clypeus evenly curved, anterior margin strongly reflexed, 
‘ punctures coarse and closely set. Clypeo-frontal suture not sharply im- 
pressed. Frons slightly elevated, evenly convex, asperately punctured, the 
punctures smaller but about as numerous as those on clypeus. Pronotum 
twice as broad as long (by measurement), anterior margin not beaded, lateral 
and basal margins with finé bead, punctures moderately fine, notably more 
densely set laterally than on disc. Scutellum six-tenths as long as wide, 
uniformly and densely set with punctures similar in size to those on pronotum. 
Elytron evenly, densely and moderately finely punctured, toward apex the 
punctures becoming finer and even more closely set. Underparts densely 
and finely punctured. Anterior tibia bidentate toward apex and with a 
rudimentary tooth near base. Claw cleft to about middle of length, the inner 
ramus broader than outer. 

Length 10-11 mm. (type 10.7 mm.). 

Type.—U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 48473, a male from La Carlota, Occidental 
Negros, May 17, 1930, A. W. Lopez, collector. Paratypes, four males and 
two females, same data. 


JULY 19, 1931 CHAPIN: PHILIPPINE SCARABAEIDAE oll 


Compared with A. adoretoides Ritsema, the new species is larger. The 
longest of our twenty-three specimens of A. adoretoides Ritsema (from various 
localities on Luzon) measures 9.5 mm., the shortest 8.5 mm. In carlotae the 
tarsi, especially the posterior pair, and the posterior tibial spurs are broader 
than in adoretoides. The differences in the aedeagi of the two species are 
indicated in the drawings (figures 3 and 4). In both species the flagellum at 
the tip of the narrower of the lateral lobes is loosely attached and has freedom 
of motion in any direction. 


Holotrichia sexspecula new species. 


Near H. mindanaona Brenske but with the integuments generally pruinose 
and with a quite different development of the pronotum and elytra. Dark 
castaneous above, abdomen somewhat paler. Head shining, coarsely and 
densely punctured, clypeus feebly bilobed with anterior margin reflexed, frons 
with a median shallow depression flanked either side by a low tubercle. 


Figure 3. Apogoniacarlotaen.sp. Aedeagus; right, front, and left views. 
Figure 4. Apogonia adoretoides Rits. Aedeagus, right and left views. 


Pronotum broader than long (length—width ratio = 46:76), sides angulately 
rounded at middle, anterior and posterior margins fine but complete, lateral 
marginal carina fine at posterior angle and continued so to the apex of the 
median angulation where it ceases. At the anterior angle the carina is modi- 
fied into a broad, rounded explanate flap. Between the flap and the angula- 
tion, the normal course of the carina is traced by a series of punctures. Sur- 
face rather finely but not densely punctured, with an even pruinosity except 
for four spots: two semicircular spots on anterior margin, one either side of 
the middle, and one large rounded spot on anterior half of each lateral angular 
protuberance. Scutellum with a few scattered punctures. Elytra with 
suture tumid, densely punctured in the vicinity of the scutellum, more sparsely 
punctured elsewhere, pruinose except for a large lateral area commencing at 
humeral callus and reaching half way to apex. Close to the suture near 
apical fourth there is a roughened spot of small size from which grow two tufts 
of ferruginous hairs. Pygidium roughly triangular, apex rounded and very 
densely punctured, with a few hairs along its margin. Metasternum shaggy 

with whitish hairs, abdominal sternites with a few very short hairs, second 


312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 13 


visible sternite with a dense patch of hair laterally. Anterior tibia tridentate, 
posterior tibial spurs acute-spatulate, first segment of posterior tarsus shorter 
than second, claw strongly hooked, furnished with a small, acute, sub- 
basal tooth. 
Length (from apex of clypeus to apex of elytral suture) 19 mm. 
Type.—U.8S.N.M. Cat. No. 438474, a female from Cuernos Mountain, Ori- 
ental Negros, C. F. Baker, collector. 


Owing to the unnatural distortion of the abdomen due to shrinkage, the 
over-all measurement is not given. The fascicles of hair on the elytra appear 
most unusual. 


Holotrichia negrosiana new species. 
Figure 5. 


In size, comparable to H. philippinica Brenske but differs from this species 
by the presence of a well-marked pruinosity in the male and by the long first 
posterior tarsal segment. | 

Male.—Color castaneous, head and pronotum darker, pruinose. Clypeus 
angulately emarginate, almost bilobed, anterior margin strongly reflexed, very 
coarsely and closely punctured. Clypeo-frontal suture angulate at middle, 
finely impressed. Frons coarsely but less densely punctured, that portion of 
vertex usually carried beneath the pronotum impunctate. Pronotum trans- 
verse, sides angulate at middle, lateral margin reflexed, strongly so before 
and feebly so behind the angulation, anterior marginal bead entire, moder- 
ately broad and finely crenulate along its posterior border, basal marginal 
bead incomplete across disc. Surface more finely and much more sparsely 
punctured than that of head. Scutellum laterally with a few punctures. 
Elytron finely and somewhat more densely punctured than pronotum, sutural 
margin feebly but broadly elevated, apical marginal region densely punctured. 
Pygidium rather sparsely punctured, its lower margin fringed with long hairs. 
Underparts sparsely punctured, median portions shining, lateral portions 
dull, legs shining, anterior tibia tridentate, first posterior tarsal segment as 
long as second, claw with a small, sharp, submedian tooth. 

Female.—Similar to male except that the elytra are more Coane punc- 
tured and, when clean, strongly shining. 

Length 12.5-14.5 mm. (type 14 mm.). 

Type.—U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 43475, a male from La Carlota, Occidental 
Negros, May 17, 1930, A. W. Lopez, collector. Paratypes, 22 males and 28 
females (pinned) and numerous males and females in alcohol, same data. 


The pinned material was passed through strong alcohol and xylol before 
pinning in order to extract the contained fat; in such specimens the more 
shining integuments of the females are readily observed. The aedeagus is 
figured (figure 5). 

Holotrichia stylifer new species. 
Figure 6 


Size and form of H. mindanaona Brenske. Shining, color pale brown with 
head, pronotum, and legs dark. Clypeus feebly, angulately emarginate at 
middle, anterior margin not strongly reflexed, punctures moderate in size and 


JULY 19, 1931 CHAPIN: PHILIPPINE SCARABAEIDAE 313 


rather sparsely placed, clypeo-frontal suture sinuate, front more sparsely 
punctured than clypeus. There is a faint median depression on the frons. 
Pronotum transverse, widest across middle, sides obtusely angulate but not 
strongly produced, marginal bead fine and complete laterally and basally, 
anterior marginal bead broader and flat, its margins entire, surface more 
sparsely but equally coarsely punctured with head, anterior angles rounded 
and very slightly produced, lateral margin just behind the anterior angles 
slightly reflexed, basal angles rounded. Scutellum sparsely punctured. 
Elytron with punctures of equal size and density to those of pronotum, 
sutural margin faintly and broadly elevated, without other costae. Pygid- 
ium sparsely punctured, its lower margin fringed with long hairs. Under- 
parts feebly punctured, shining but with latero-ventral opaque spots on 3rd 
and 4th sternites. Anterior tibia tridentate, first posterior tarsal segment 
equal in length to second, claw with a minute, sharp, recurved denticle on the 
basal lobe. Aedeagus shown in figure 6. 

Length 16.5-19 mm. (type 18 mm.). 

Type.—U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 43476, a male from La Carlota, Occidental 
Negros, May 17, 1930, A. W. Lopez, collector. Paratypes, two males and 


6 


Figure 5. Holotrichia negrosianan. sp. Aedeagus, side and front views. 
Figure 6. Holotrichia stylifer n. sp. Aedeagus, side and front views. 
Figure 7. Holotrichia sorsogonan.sp. Aedeagus, side and front views. 


one female, same data as type; one male from Saravia, Occidental Negros, 
May 12, 1929, W. D. Pierce, collector; three males and one female from 
Victorias, Occidental Negros, Oct. 4 and 7, 1927, Nov. 28, 1928, and Oct. 16, 
1929, W. D. Pierce, collector; two males and one female, Cuernos Mountain, 
Oriental Negros, C. F. Baker, collector. 


Holotrichia sorsogona new species. 
Figure 7. 


Near to H. stylifer new species; shining, color light castaneous, head and 
pronotum slightly darker. Clypeus with a shallow, angulate emargination, 
anterior margin reflexed, surface rather coarsely and quite densely punctured, 
clypeo-frontal suture sinuate, frons as coarsely but less densely punctured 
than clypeus, with a broad, shallow, but very evident depression, vertex 
strongly punctured. Pronotum transverse, widest across apices of lateral 
angulations, lateral margins, commencing at the rounded and hardly pro- 
duced anterior angle, running straight back for one-fourth length of pronotum, 


314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 13 


there turning sharply outward to form an angle of about 140°, then turning 
inward to the obtuse basal angle, forming a lateral angle of about 90°, which 
is itself broadly rounded. Marginal bead fine and entire, the anterior lateral 
margins slightly flattened and produced. Surface more finely and sparsely 
punctured than head. Scutellum evenly and densely punctured. Elytron 
more finely and densely punctured, with three faintly indicated costae in 
addition to the slightly raised sutural margin. Pygidium coarsely, deeply, 
but not densely punctured. Underparts finely and sparsely punctured, meta- 
sternum clad with long hairs, anterior tibia tridentate, first posterior tarsal 
segment shorter than second, claw with minute denticle on basallobe. Aedea- 
gus figured (figure 7). 

Type —U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 48477, a male from Sorsogon, - Southern 
Luzon, C. F. Baker, collector. 


In the structure of the male genitalia and in the tarsal claws this species is 
closely related to the preceding. There appears to be no supplementary style 
attached to the wall of the internal sac as in that species, however. The 
development of the sides of the pronotum is much more exaggerated here 
than in any other species of the genus known to me. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


Dr. LeLanp Ossian Howarp, until his retirement in 1927 chief of the 
Bureau of Entomology, has been awarded the 1931 Capper Gold Medal and 
the sum of $5,000 for distinguished service to American agriculture. An in- 
formal reception in his honor was held at the Cosmos Club June 29 to give his 
fellow members an opportunity to greet him and to wish him well before his 
departure for France, where he will reside. 


Dr. C. Hart Merriam has been awarded one of the three Roosevelt 
medals given each year by the Roosevelt Memorial Association for distin- 
guished service. The award was given to Dr. Merriam for distinguished ser- 
vice in the advancement of the study of natural history. He founded, in 
1885, the division of ornithology and mammalogy in the Federal Department 
of Agriculture, which later became the Bureau of Biological Survey, and, as 
its chief for 25 years, introduced methods of research and study which consti- 
tute the basic structure of the present American school of mammalogy. 


Dr. ALEXANDER WETMORE has been elected an honorary member of the 
Hungarian Ornithological Society, and has also been awarded the Otto Herman ~ 
silver medal by that society. 


NatTHAN W. Bass has been reinstated in the Geological Survey and assigned 
to the geologic branch. 


E. T. Wuerry, Associate Professor of Botany, University of Pennsylvania, 
is collecting and studying the Polemoniaceae or Phlox family in the North- 
western States. 


On July i, the division of agricultural engineering of the Bureau of Public 
Roads became an independent bureau of the Department of Agriculture, with — 
the name, Bureau of Agricultural Engineering. 8S. H. McCrory, head of the 
former division, has been appointed chief of the new bureau. 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 21 '  Avucust 19, 1931 ? No. 14 


MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS.—The quantum theory of Born and 
Wiener. R. J. SpecerR, The George Washington University.! 
(Communicated by Epcar W. Woo.Larp.) 

The quantum theory of Born and Wiener? was devised as an opera- 
tional calculus to confine the infinite matrices of Heisenberg to a 
region of mathematics more highly developed analytically. Another 
merit was the utility of its structure for aperiodic, as well as periodic, 
motions. Despite both these advances, however, it soon succumbed 
to the simpler method of Schrédinger, which still holds sway. 
Indeed, Schrédinger’s equation is now the epitome of quantum 
mechanics. But the more the success of the latter’s applications is 
unquestionable, the more problematic is the interpretation of its 
usefulness. This has become the crux of the new theory so that much 
discussion of fundamental concepts has enlarged physics into meta- 
physics. At present, there are two schools of thought—not to mention 
pessimistic outlooks—: the one accepts the equation as an accidental 
revelation to be given a special, physical meaning; the other looks 
upon it as an incidental emergence to be evolved from a general, 
mathematical technique. This second view is precisely the one 
previously considered by Born and Wiener in a different application; 
hence, the desirability of extended work in this direction. 

In particular, their theory attempts to fix operations which will 
yield the elements of the respective, associated matrices (if these exist) 
upon application to a given exponential function. The physical 
postulate, that the latter be real representations, necessitates matrices 
of the Hermitian type. The method is to subject the operational 
equations of motion to the quantum condition. It has been used so 
far to solve two problems: the linear, harmonic oscillator and the free 

1 Received June 23, 1931. 

2 Born, M. and Wiener, N. Zs. f. Phys. 36: 174. 

315 


316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 14 


particle in one dimension. The following solution of a particle in a 
a uniform field is of additional value from a critical standpoint. 

Consider a particle moving along the axis of a constant force F. If 
m be the mass (nonrelativistic case), then the Hamiltonian expres- 
sion for the total energy H is 


1 
H = =— P?2 + FQ? 


2m 


where Q is the positional coordinate and P its corresponding momen- 
tum. Hence, the equation of motion is 


nage 
Let QO =? @, (0) 4 a. (De Gap) 


where ¢ signifies the time and D the first derivative with respect to it. 
Using the definition 


Q = DQ — QD 
we have Q = 2 a, (1D) 
F 
we = in eae 
F 
and Qz=- 2+ t(D) + 4; (D) 
2m 


The quantum condition is 


h —— 
PQ'— QP = oa, 1=v-1 
Or, since P = mQ, 
a) 


1.e. (E14 D)}{- soe tee. (D) +4, () 
m 2m 


F 2 : 
~ |= she +1800) + D)}|- Pers, ©) Qaim 


— aua. 19, 1931 SEEGER: THE QUANTUM THEORY 317 
Using Leibnitz’ formula, namely, 

PCD) = 1 Oi PED) eee Ch) 
we obtain 


h 
24%4™ 


F aa ; ce 
moe (D) tees (D) + ®, (D) ®, (D) ice 


oe Whe 
Let thisoperate one” _, where W represents the value of the energy 
in the particular state concerned. 


2 
Put w= Be ley 
sie /) 
2m h 
— ©,” (w) + 2 ®,’ (w) ar oh? (w) id) (w) ena 
; m hw 


where A, is the constant of integration. 


WV,’ (w) F 
WV, (w) =. a ®, (w) 


Put 


23 a 


vw” (w) — |- Fr ® (w) + 


; = Ora 
We note that (2A) is the specialized Riccatti equation, which has 
previously appeared in the new quantum mechanics in various forms 
as “Schrédinger’s equation.” 

Let us now introduce the Hermitian condition, i.e. 


O10; 
where the wavy line indicates the operator which will yield the trans- 
pose-matrix of that given by Q, and the asterisk signifies the one 
which will’give the complex-conjugate. In this case it becomes 


F 
2m 


F 
me! f(D) + ® (D) = - 


{2 


pee C0) 4 ie) 


318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 14 


277 


— Wt 
: 5 h 
‘Operating this on e , we have 


td, (w) + & (w) = — &* (w) t + &* (w) 
Again using relation (1), we obtain 
by Ww) i@)® Goes. eh aa. 
and &, (w) = — ®,/* @w) +0," (w). 2 ee 


From (3a) we learn that 4, (w) is purely imaginary; from (30), that 
the imaginary part of ®; (w) is equal to — 4 @,’/* (w). Therefore, put 


®; (w) = &(w) — 3 &,* (w) 


where ® (w) is real. Substituting this in @), we have 


~ = {a (w)}* = iy 4 28 (wo) + Ag 
| F 
Put 6 (w) = —— (2 (w) + Ag} 


[h 
8) = i 


ab 
2 


and ®; (w) = ®(w) — i + 3¢’ «| ae ale 60)! 


hae OD) 
F hD 
feast site 


“p) fas +¢ D)! oe ae (4) 


If F = 0, we have the case of a free particle. Then 


+8(D) - 3 


QAP! sam) - 3] 


Tum 
Equation (4a) agrees with that obtained by Born and Wiener. It 
is to be noted that their transpose-operator is published incorrectly 
Another mistake in sign later happens to make matters right again. 


AUG. 19, 1931 SEEGER: THE QUANTUM THEORY O19 


We form the ‘‘Spaltensumme”’ thus: 


2 W 271 @ 211 
2Q6W=- ete ae CE wl i+eCHw) 
fae Pag a 2W Qt ON | 
tote (Gy w)} 2 + 9 ( h w) 
2W 27% __\|? 
and PUW)=-Fi+ 7 +6(CE w) 
1 m h J 


This agrees with the classical formula only for W large and for ¢ = 0. 
Hence, there is an arbitrariness in the general solution. This lack 
of uniqueness and the relation to the Schrodinger type of equation are 
the distinctive features of this problem. 

There is one point more, however, which is important. Born and 
Wiener deduce the Hermitian condition subject to the vanishing of 
the time-function w(t) as ¢ becomes infinite. For then the following 
integral has a finite value in the limit: . 


U 1 ae tat 

= im t) dt 
(a) Ae ve u (t) d 
In the problem of a free particle U (a) does not exist; for the integral 
becomes oscillatory as T — ©. In the case of a particle in a uniform 
field U(a) becomes infinite. And the former is again true for the 
linear harmonic oscillator. The question arises as to the validity of 
the proof for these applications. Perhaps it is advisable to look upon 
this particular operational form of the Hermitian condition as a 
generalized definition, a hypothesis to be justified pragmatically. 


320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 14 


ENTOMOLOGY .—Synopsts of Perigaster (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). 
L. L. Bucuanan, Bureau of Entomology. (Communicated by 
Harotp Morrison.) 


Some time ago, Mr. W. J. Brown of Ottawa, Ontario sent the writer 
an undescribed species of the ceutorhynchid genus Perigaster. The 
attempt to fit this species in the existing classification brought to light 
several unrecorded structural peculiarities that modify the generic 
and specific definitions heretofore followed. 

In the first place, the scrobe, which has been described as linear, 
oblique, and directed beneath eye, is in reality no more than a terminal 
oval pit for receiving the globular base of scape. From this pit there 
extends directly toward the eye a variably distinct suleus which, how- 
ever, does not conceal or protect the scape in its position of rest. The 
sulcus is often partially, and sometimes entirely, obliterated, and is 
always more or less punctate and scaly, in these respects contrasting 
strongly with the normally formed scrobe, which is deep, glabrous, and 
without evident sculpture except for a shagreened or alutaceous sur- 
face. In some specimens of Perigaster this ‘‘false’’ scrobe is rather 
deep, but its vestigial nature is shown by indefinite margins, by the 
presence of punctures or scales, or by other indications. As the scrobe 
proper is virtually effaced, its direction can not be used as a generic 
character. 

The published requirement for simple claws is only partly correct, 
the claws being simple in obscura, minutely toothed in cretura and 
longirostris, and strongly toothed in ¢etracantha. 3 

The antennal funicle can be regarded as six-segmented, although in 
tetracantha especially, and in rare individuals of the other species, there 
is a fairly well differentiated seventh segment at the base of the club. 
In the great majority of specimens the funicle appears to be truly 
six-segmented. 

The narrow shelf-like production of the second abdominal segment 
(see figure 1), forming the surface over which the third segment slides 
when tip of abdomen is depressed, has definite taxonomic value. ‘This 
structure is called simply “‘shelf’’ in key and descriptions. When the 
abdomen is depressed, the visible surface of the third segment becomes 
equally broad from side to side; this fact should be kept in mind in 
interpreting the published statement, “third segment narrowed 
at sides.”’ 

As treated here, Perigaster shows the following generic characters: 


1 Received May 27, 1931. 


AuG. 19, 1931 BUCHANAN: PERIGASTER O21 


Rostrum wider and thicker toward apex; scrobes vestigial except at tip; 
scape inserted at about apical one-third, the funicle six-segmented; posterior 
eye margin acutely elevated; prothorax with the four usual cusps well devel- 
oped, and in addition generally with a minute one on anterior margin a short 
distance below apical cusp (see figure 1), ocular lobes feeble or absent; base 
of prothorax and elytra thickened and raised; fore coxae separated by one- 
third to two-thirds the width of a coxa, antecoxal ridges absent, prosternal 
emargination deep, U-shaped; femora mutic, third tarsal segment bilobed, 
claws simple or toothed; third ventral narrowed at sides with abdomen in 
normal position; male with mid and hind tibiae mucronate. 


These characters apply more strictly to the northern species; as is 
brought out in the key, tetracantha Champion from Panama differs in 
several important respects and properly forms a distinct subgenus. 

To avoid repetition, a few general characters common to the three 
or four North American species are briefly outlined here and are not 
mentioned again in the descriptions. 


Head: Occiput with a distinct longitudinal carina; eyes one-half to two- 
thirds covered in repose; scape short, failing to reach eye by about length of 
first funicular segment; funicle with first three segments elongated, the first 
much stouter. Prothorax subconical in shape, the sides nearly straight to 
moderately arcuate, hardly constricted at apex. Hlytra with tenth interval 
somewhat depressed at basal third, causing a sinuation of outline as seen 
from above, striae 2 to 6 inclusive, especially the latter, terminating at base in 
a pit, femora broadly and indefinitely annulated with scales at apical third. 
The standard markings above consist of a band of pale scales across base of 
head, a stripe along each side of pronotum, wider in front, and white spots 
on elytra as follows: One on third interval at basal third, one on seventh 
interval at or a little before middle, and occasionally a smaller one at apical 
termination of third interval, one or more of these spots commonly missing. 


The remarkable dung-bearing habits of the externally feeding larvae 
are described by Knab (Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., vol. 17, 1915, p. 194). 
Knab’s specimens, or part of them, now preserved in the National col- 
lection, prove to be cretura instead of obscura as published. 


Key to SPECIES OF PERIGASTER 


1. Scape very short, less than one-third length of funicle with club (ratio 
about 6 to 22), attached a little before middle of beak, scrobe merely an 
oval pit; rostrum short, scarcely longer than depth of head, in side view 
a little thicker at base than toward apex; distance between fore coxal 

_ almost equal to length of scape; pronotum more strongly arched longi- 
tudinally; dorsum with dense covering of minute, suberect, dark brown 
to black scales, with some white scales forming a stripe each side of 
pronotum and a very faint transverse median band on elytra reaching 
from margin inward about half way to suture, a few scattered white scales 
on apical half of elytra, on humeri, and at base of pronotum; under surface 
with small close-set white scales; tooth of tarsal claws long, one-half to 


322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 14 


two-thirds length of claw; body form very stout, the elytra a little 
broader than long. Length, 2.45 mm.; width, 1.65 mm. Panama. 
tetracantha Champion. 

Scape distinctly more than one-third length of funicle with club (ratio about 
8 to 20), attached about one-third from apex; rostrum thicker toward 
apex; scape much longer than distance between fore coxae; scales on 
dorsum much larger, prostrate; tooth of tarsal claw minute or absent; 
form generally less stout. Species north of Mexico................. 2 

2. Tarsal claws simple; shelf of second ventral segment not punctate and 
not rugose; profile of rostrum and head more abruptly discontinuous; 
rostrum stout, generally much less than twice as long as broad; pronotum 
generally uneven, due to a conspicuous median swelling; anterior coxae 
separated by about two-thirds their width; elytral intervals 3, 5, and 7 
frequently elevated in basal half. Southeastern United States. 
obscura Leconte. 

Claws with a minute basal tooth; shelf of second ventral generally sculptured 
to some extent; profile of head and beak less abruptly discontinuous; 
median pronotal swelling feeble or absent...................200000: 3 

3. Rostrum short and stout, almost always distinctly less than twice as long 
as broad; shelf of second ventral smooth or lightly punctate across a 
narrow basal strip; entire dorsum rather even, the pronotal swelling 
feeble or absent and alternate elytral intervals less elevated; anterior 
coxae separated by one-half to two-thirds their width; body stouter. 
Bastern, UnitediStates:. ia i Oe. ee cretura Herbst. 
Rostrum longer and more slender, a little more than twice as long as broad; 
shelf of second ventral coarsely sculptured; ground color darker, the dor- 
sum often marmorated; third, fifth, and seventh elytral intervals more 
distinctly elevated; fore coxae separated by about one-third their width. 
Canada, south to New Jersey and west to Washington. . .longirostris n. sp. 


* * * * 


Rostrum scarcely as long as head, with an obtuse median carina; punctures of 
occiput in striae; elytra with alternate intervals wider and higher. Royal 
Palm Park. Morida. | femaleciie sy ceva sb qari alternans Blatchley. 
(Species not seen; possibly a well developed form of obscura). 


PERIGASTER CRETURA Herbst. (QUADRISPINOSA Say) 


Length, 2.5-3.2 mm.; width, 1.6-2.15 mm. Robust, dorsum generally 
even, scales of two sizes, the larger pale ones sparse or wanting on disk of 
pronotum, on humeral swelling, and on various small scattered areas on 
elytra, being replaced to some extent on these places by much smaller, nar- 
rower, coppery scales. 

Rostrum feebly arcuate, above finely and closely punctate and frequently 
with a narrow median line either smooth or very finely grooved, scales small 
and sparse above but larger on sides near apex, a band of dirty white oval 
scales between eyes; head with a large median flattened or concave area 
opposite posterior eye margin, the occipital carina often extending down to 
the concavity. Pronotum finely and densely punctate, commonly with an 
indefinite medially interrupted line of dirty white scales, surface abruptly 
declivous at middle of base. LElytral intervals flat to feebly convex, more 
convex toward sides, third, fifth, and seventh slightly broader and higher in 
many specimens, surface of intervals finely but irregularly sculptured or 
granulose, the granules on fifth, seventh, and ninth sometimes developed into 
minute denticles, more evidently so near apex; striae deep, with small close- 


AuG. 19, 1931 BUCHANAN: PERIGASTER 323 


set punctures, each puncture partially closed by an oval or narrowly oblong 
longitudinally directed scale. Venter with close-set circular scales. 

Oklahoma; Texas; Louisiana; Alabama; Florida; North Carolina; Virginia; 
Maryland; New Jersey; New York; Massachusetts; Michigan; Illinois. 
150 specimens. 

This species presents a characteristic habitus due to the very stout body 
form and the comparatively smooth dorsum. The relatively even distribu- 
tion of vestiture gives the upper surface a smooth gray appearance, con- 
trasting with the unevenly marked or marmorate dorsum in longirostris and 
obscura. P. cretura differs from these two also in having the scales on dorsum 
narrower, and the antennae inserted a little nearer to apex of beak. The 


apical prothoracic cusps are often feeble. 


PERIGASTER OBSCURA Leconte (QUADRISPINOSA Gyll.). 


Length, 2.4-3.1 mm.; width, 1.55-2.1 mm. Slightly less robust than 
cretura, the ground color darker, the larger pale scales sparser, the smaller 
brassy ones rather more conspicuous, the dorsum more uneven. 

Rostrum moderately to rather strongly arched, finely punctate above, more 
coarsely at sides; head densely, more or less rugosely punctate, the area 
between and behind eyes flattened or concave, and often with brassy scales; 
pronotum typically with well developed median hump, the punctures either 
uniformly fine and dense, or coarser and finer intermixed, a feeble median 
longitudinal groove often evident; elytra with intervals convex, the third, 
fifth, and seventh generally somewhat elevated; striae rather deep, the strial 
punctures a little larger and sparser than in cretura or longirostris. The 
vestiture and punctation on venter, except on pro- and mesosterna, is gener- 
ally sparser than in cretura. 

Louisiana; Mississippi; Alabama; Florida; Virginia; Maryland; District 
of Columbia. 

In typical examples from Florida, this species differs from the others in the 
shorter, stouter, more strongly arcuate beak, the sparser vestiture above and 
below, the sparser and more irregular pronotal punctures, the presence of a 
faint median pronotal sulcus, the feebler granulations on elytral intervals, 
etc. These differences break down, one by one, in the more northern speci- 
mens, leaving only the alutaceous shelf of second ventral and the absolutely 
simple tarsal claws as certain definitive characters. Only about two dozen 
specimens of this species have been seen; perhaps a greater number would 
contain exceptions to any single structural character. 

The name quadrispinosus Gyll. 1836, a homonym of quadrispinosus Say 
1824, was listed in the synonymy of cretura Hbst. by Leconte 1885 and by 
Dietz 1896. Gyllenhal’s description, based on a Mississippi specimen, fits 
obscura Lec. better than cretura Hbst., so quadrispinosus Gyll. may be con- 
sidered a synonym of Leconte’s species. 


Perigaster longirostris, new species. 


Figure 1. 


Length, 2.2-2.6 mm.; width, 1.35-1.75 mm. (19 specimens, male and 
female). 

Rather stout, black or dark piceous, pronotum with a broad, indefinite, 
medially interrupted stripe of rounded scales, elytra with scattered brown to 


324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 14 


white rounded scales interspersed with minute narrow brassy scales giving 
the surface a marmorated appearance, the rounded scales more or less con- 
densed along the suture, and sometimes also in a short transverse bar at basal 
third, thus forming a cross or inverted T, depending on length of sutural 
stripe, these marks not sharply defined. Legs reddish. 

Rostrum moderately arcuate, a little more than twice as long as broad, 
finely and closely punctate, more sparsely toward apex, the punctures show- 
ing a tendency toward linear arrangement on upper surface behind antennal 
insertion, and often leaving a fairly distinct median line smooth; surface 
glabrous above, more or less scaly at sides. Scrobe an elongate pit one-third 
from apex of beak, false scrobe punctate and scaly, extending back to or almost 
toeye. Head densely, finely punctate, flattened or slightly concave between 
and behind eyes, with a band of oval scales between eyes. Pronotum densely 
punctate, moderately arched, abruptly declivous at middle of base; ocular 


R* 


Figure 1. Perigaster longirostris, new species, X 18. (Drawn by Harry BRADFORD) 


lobes more or less evident. LElytral striae rather broad and deep, strial 
punctures close-set, intervals convex, finely granulose, the granules on 
fifth, seventh, and especially on the ninth developed into minute denticles 
from each of which projects posteriorly a scalelike hair, the third, fifth, and 
seventh intervals as a rule broader and slightly elevated; humeri prominent 
and subglabrous; tenth interval depressed at basal one-third causing a sinu- 
osity in outline of elytra from dorsal point of view. Venter with rounded 
pale scales, contiguous to overlapping over most of the surface, except on last 
four ventral segments and on lower part of propleura where they are sparser. 
Femora reddish, often with darker blotches near base and apex, indefinitely 
and broadly annulated with scales at apical third. 

Type locality: Ottawa, Ontario (Harrington). 14 specimens, type. and 
13 paratypes. 

Other localities (Paratypes): Mt. St. Hilarie, Quebec, 1 specimen; Detroit, 
Michigan (Hubbard and Schwarz), 1 specimen; Irvington, New Jersey 


auG. 19, 1931 BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE 320 


(Bischoff Collection), 1 specimen; Iowa (Wickham), 1 specimen; Pullman, 
Washington (J. F. Clarke), 1 specimen. 

Type: A male, in Canadian National Collection. 

Paratypes: 9 in Canadian National Collection; 9 in U.S. National Museum 
Collection, Cat. No. 43532. 


The elytral vestiture varies considerably, showing a tendency toward the 
development of a transverse band beginning on suture at basal third and 
extending laterally either at right angles or obliquely backward to connect 
with spot on seventh interval. An irregular marmoration of the surface is 
conspicuous in well preserved specimens. The ocular lobe, a noteworthy 
character in this genus, varies from a feeble to a fairly well defined form, 
though never strongly developed; the lobe covers about three-fourths of the 
eye with rostrum in position of rest. 

Properly mounted specimens of this species should be recognizable by the 
longer beak, narrowly separated fore coxae, presence of feeble ocular lobes; 
rugosely sculptured shelf of second ventral segment, better development of 
denticles on ninth interval of elytra, and the exceedingly minute tooth on 
tarsal claws. The last named character is difficult to see with less than about 
40 magnifications. The upper eye margin is not so much elevated above 
head surface as in cretura and obscura. When the three species are compared 
in series, longzrostris is seen to be distinctly the smallest. 


BOTANY .—Nine new American Asteraceae S. F. Buake, Bureau 
of Plant Industry. 

This paper contains descriptions of nine new species of Asteraceae, 
of which one is from Utah, two are from Mexico and Central America, 
and six are from South America. Several transfers of names and new 
names and two new varieties are also included. 


Vernonia calderoni Blake, sp. nov. 


Sect. Hremoseos; frutex; rami tomentosi glabrescentes; folia oblongo- 
ovata v. elliptica majuscula supra mox glabrata subtus laxe griseo-tomentosa; 
capitula parva 5-flora in axillis glomerata; involucrum dense tomentosum; 
achenia 5—6-costata dense breviterque pilosa. 


Shrub 3 m. high; branches somewhat zigzag; leaves alternate; petioles 
thick, gray-tomentose, about 4 mm. long; blades 7-12 em. long, 3-5 cm. wide, 
obtuse or acutish, apiculate, at base cuneate, remotely and obscurely callous- 
denticulate, papery, above dotted with sessile shining glands, glabrate except 
along costa, beneath thinly and somewhat floccosely but persistently tomen- 
tose and gland-dotted, featherveined, the lateral veins 8-10 pairs, prominulous 
beneath, the veinlets reticulate beneath; heads short-pedicelled or subsessile, 
crowded in axillary glomerules 1.5-2 em. thick, these confluent at tips of stem 
and the short branchlets; involucre about 5 mm. high, strongly graduate, 
about 7-seriate, the phyllaries broadly triangular-ovate to-lance-oblong and 


1 Received May 28, 1931. 


326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 14 


(innermost) nearly linear, densely tomentose and somewhat gland-dotted, 
obtuse, the innermost acutish, deciduous; corollas about 4.5 mm. long; 
achenes 3 mm. long; pappus whitish, the outer of linear squamellae about 1.5 
mm. long, the inner of aristiform barbellate bristles 4.5 mm. long. 

SALVADOR: Sierra de Osicala, Dept. Morazdn, April 1929, Salvador Cal- 
deron (type No. 1,406,895, U. 8. Nat. Herb.; dupl. in herb. Field Mus.). 

A species combining the inflorescence and achenes of Vernonia standleyi 
Blake with the leaves of V. lezocarpa DC. 


Lepidophyllum phylicaeforme var. resinosum (Walp.) Blake. 


Vernonia phylicaeformis var. resinosa Walp., Nov. Act. Acad. Caes. Leop.- 

Carol. 19: Suppl. 1: 253. 1843. | 
Baccharis lucida Meyen, Walp. Nov. Act. Acad. Caes. Leop.-Carol. 19: 

Suppl. 1: 253. 1848, as synonym. 

Possibly a distinct species, but differing from typical Lepidophyllum 
phylicaeforme (Meyen) Hieron. only, so far as known, in its glabrous and 
resinous (not tomentose) stem and branches. R. EH. Fries 675, from Argen- 
tina, distributed as L. phylicaeforme, represents this variety. I have else- 
where? discussed the identity of Lepidophyllum phylicaeforme and Parastre- 
phia ericoides Nutt. | 


Solidago auriculata Shuttleworth, nom. nov. 


Solidago amplexicaulis Torr. & Gray, Fl. N. Amer. 2: 218. 1842. Not 

S. amplexicaulis Martens, Bull. Acad. Brux. 8: 67. 1841. 

Solidago auriculata Shuttl., A. Gray, Syn. Fl. N. Amer. 1°: 158. 1884, as 
synonym. 
Aster amplexicaulis Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 1: 317. 1891. Not A. am- 

plexicaulis Lam. 1783, or Michx. 1803, or Muhl. 1803. 

Torrey and Gray, when describing this species, did so under the name 
“S. amplexicaulis (Martens?),’”’ stating that they attributed the name to the 
plant described merely on the basis of its appropriateness, not having seen 
the original publication of Martens. Chapman? in 1860 used the same name, 
with the authority Torrey & Gray, and Gray in his later writings continued. 
to do so, after it had been ascertained that Martens’ name referred to S. 
riddellii Frank. The appropriate name S. auriculata, under which the species 
was distributed by Shuttleworth (according to Gray), is here given proper 
publication. 


Solidago graminea (Woot. & Standl.) Blake. 

Petradoria graminea Woot. & Standl., Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 16: 183. 
1913. : 
A species closely related to Solidago petradoria Blake (S. pumila (Nutt.) 

Torr. & Gray, not Crantz; Petradoria pumila Greene), but with very much 


2 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 26: 232. 1930. 
3 Fl. So. U. S. ed. 1. 218. 1860. 


AuG. 19, 1931 BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE 27; 


narrower leaves. Originally described from northwestern New Mexico, 
it has also been found in the Kaibab National Forest in northern Arizona 
(specimens collected 13 Aug. 1926, received through Dr. C. D. Marsh; in 
U.S. Nat. Herb.) and about 73 miles south of Scipio, Millard County, Utah, 
alt. 1650 meters, 20 June 1930 (G. D. Pickford 28; herb. U.S. Forest Service). 


Aster pantotrichus Blake, nom. nov. 


Aster missouritensis Britton in Britton & Brown, Ill. Fl. 3: 378. f. 3794. 
1898. Not A. missuriensis (sic) Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 1: 318. 1891. 
(Based on Solidago missouriensis Nutt.) 


Aster pantotrichus var. thyrsoideus (A. Gray) Blake. 


Aster diffusus var. thysoideus A. Gray, Syn. Fl. N. Amer. 17: 187. 1884. 
Aster lateriflorus var. thyrsoideus Sheldon, Bull. Torrey Club 20: 286. 1893. 

As the name Aster missouriensis Britton must be abandoned owing to the 
previous use of the same name by Kuntze, and as Gray’s varietal name 
thyrsovdeus is ineligible for raising to specific rank because of Aster thyrsodeus 
(E. Meyer) Kuntze,‘ it is necessary to provide the species with a new name. 


Erigeron phoenicodontus Blake, s p.nov. 


Perennis caespitosus ubique dense cinereo-strigosus, involucris dense 
breviterque hirsutis exceptis; folia basalia anguste oblanceolata acuta integra 
l-nervia, petiolis base ampliatis albidis ciliatis, caulina parva linearia; caules 
simplices monocephali, capitulis mediocribus breviter pedunculatis; involucri 
paullum gradati phyllaria linearia, intima apice scariosa purpurea; radii ca. 
40 albi parvi; achenia basi excepta glabra 10-nervia subteretia; pappus biseria- 
tus, exteriore breviter setuloso. 


Stems and leaves densely cinereous-strigose throughout, in small tufts 
from a few-branched, apparently deep and vertical cylindric root; fibrous 
bases of basal leaves persistent; stems 1-6 in a tuft, erect, simple, 1-headed, 
about 15 em. high; basal leaves narrowly oblanceolate, 2.5-3.8 cm. long 
including the petioliform base, 2-3 mm. wide, acute, acuminate at base, 
entire, firm, l-nerved, the base of the petiole somewhat enlarged, whitish, 
subscarious, ciliate, 3-nerved; stem leaves about 15, gradually reduced 
above, linear, the upper bracteiform and 3-6 mm. long; peduncles 1-15 mm. 
long; heads about 1.8 em. wide; disk 1.3-1.5 em. thick; involucre hemispheric, 
4—5-seriate, slightly graduate, 5 mm. high, the phyllaries linear, acute to 
short-acuminate, densely hirsute with straight, mostly ascending hairs, the 
inmost phyllaries with green midline, whitish chartaceous margin, and 
scarious purple tips, the others with green midline and whitish margins; rays 
about 35-40, white, the tube sparsely pilose at apex with many-celled hairs, 
2.5 mm. long, the lamina linear, tridenticulate, 4-nerved, 5 mm. long, 1.2 mm. 
wide; disk flowers very numerous, their corollas purplish above, sparsely 
pilosulous near middle, 4.5-5 mm. long (tube 1-1.5 mm., throat cylindric- 
funnelform, 3 mm., teeth 5, deltoid, papillose-crested, 0.5 mm. long); achenes 
of ray and disk similar, subterete, yellowish white, 9-10-nerved, glabrous 
except for a few bristles at extreme base, 2.3 mm. long; pappus of an outer 
series of minute setae about 0.3 mm. long and an inner series of about 35 


4 Rev. Gen. Pl. 1: 317. 1891. (Based on Solidago thyrsoidea E. Meyer.) 


328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 14 


whitish barbellate bristles 4 mm. long; style appendages depressed-deltoid, 
obtuse, finely hispidulous. 

Mexico: Sides of steep dry ravines, in red gravelly soil, Rancho Colorado, 
District of Guerrero, State of Chihuahua, alt. 2200 m., 27 May 1929, Ynes 
Mexia 2569 (type no. 1,409,875, U. S. Nat. Herb.). 

A well-marked species, perhaps nearest Erigeron ervendbergiz A. Gray, 
but with a different habit, much denser pubescence, and decidedly larger 
heads. 


Archibaccharis serratifolia var. paniculata (J. D. Sm.) Blake. 


Diplostephium paniculatum J. D. Sm., Bot. Gaz. 23: 8. 1897. 
Hemibaccharis mucronata paniculata Blake, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 
551. 1924. 
Archibaccharis mucronata paniculata Blake in Standl., Contr. U. 8. Nat. 
Herb. 23: 1509. 1926. 
Archibaccharis mucronata var. paniculata Blake, Amer. Journ. Bot. 15: 
64. 1928. 
I have recently shown,’ that the name to be adopted for the species long 
known as Baccharis mucronata H. B. K. is Archibaccharis serratifolia (H.B.K.) 
Blake. 


Pluchea salicifolia var. canescens (A. Gray) Blake. 


Pluchea subdecurrens var. canescens A. Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 5: 182. 
1861. 

Pluchea adnata canescens Blake in Standl., Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 23: 
1510. 1926. 


Pluchea salicifolia var. parvifolia (A. Gray) Blake. 


Pluchea subdecurrens var. parvifolia A. Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 5: 160. 
1861, 
Pluchea adnata parvifolia Blake in Standl., Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 23: 
1510. 1926. 
I have recently shown® that the name Pluchea salicifoka (Mill.) Blake, 
based on Conyza salicifolia Mill., must be used in place of P. subdecurrens 
Cass. and P. adnata (Humb. & Bonpl.) Mohr. 


Gnaphalium paramorum Blake, sp. nov. 


Herba perennis caespitosa parva ubique dense et compacte sericeo tomen- 
tosa haud stolonifera; folia basalia rosulata subspathulata obtusa 1-nervia 
1.5 cm. longa 5 mm. lata, caulina ca. 6-8 similia minora; capitula ca. 48-flora 
numerosa sessilia in glomerulum terminalem 1.5—-2.5 cm. crassum aggregata; 
involucri ca. 5 mm. alti gradati phyllaria linearia apice rotundata v. obtusa 
basi castanea apice subaequali lactea opaca; flores fem. ca. 39, hermaph. Ca. 9. 


Stems few, ascending, 6-17 cm. high; basal leaves numerous, crowded, 
spreading, 1.2—-2 cm. long, 2.5-6 mm. wide; stem leaves 1-2 em. long, 2.54 


5 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 26: 236. 1930. 
6 Contr. U. 8S. Nat. Herb. 26: 237. 1930. 


AauG. 19, 1931 BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE 329 


mm. wide, sessile, not decurrent, the lower spatulate, the upper linear-oblong, 
all obtuse, not appendaged; glomerule involucrate by a few lanceolate or 
ovate leaves about 7 mm. long; phyllaries 0.6—0.8 mm. wide, somewhat woolly 
below middle, the tips radiating in age; pistillate corollas 2 mm. long, their 
achenes subfusiform, 1 mm. long, glabrous, the pappus of about 20 minutely 
roughened bristles 2.8 mm. long, not thickened upwardly, lightly connate in 
a ring at extreme base; disk corollas apparently brownish above, slender- 
funnelform, 2.8 mm. long, 5-toothed, the style shortly bifid with truncate 
hispidulous tips, the pappus bristles about 25, 2.8 mm. long, finely hispidul- 
ous, connate at base, apparently deciduous in groups. 

VENEZUELA: Péramo Quirord, Mérida, alt. 2900 m., 24 Feb. 1922, A. 
Jahn 883 (type no. 1,186,590, U. 8S. Nat. Herb.); Péramo del Jabén, Tru- 
jillo, alt. 3500 m., 2 Oct. 1910, Jahn 22. 


An interesting plant, possessing much the appearance of Gnaphaliwm 
antennarioides DC. (Elychrysum gnaphalioides H. B. K., Antennaria monoica 
Wedd., Leontopodium gnaphalioides Hieron.), and probably most closely 
related to that species. In G. antennarioides the plant is stoloniferous and 
the leaves are longer, glabrescent and green or greenish above, and tipped 
with a brown callous point. 


Gnaphalium greenmanii Blake, nom. nov. 


Gnaphalium linearifolium Greenm., Proc. Amer. Acad. 32: 308. 1897. 
Not G. linearifolium (Wedd.) French. 1892. 


Clibadium psilogynum Blake, sp. nov. 


Sect. Huclibadiz; caulis strigosus; folia ovata opposita acuminata basi 
rotundata serrata triplinervia supra aspera subtus strigosa, petiolo tenui 
ca. 1.5 cm. longo; panicula terminalis densa; capitula mediocria sessilia; 
phyllaria 5-6 orbiculari-ovata obtusa v. minute apiculata sparse strigillosa 
sursum ciliolata 7—-13-nervia; flores fem. 4, hermaph. 7-8; ovaria glaberrima. 


Presumably a shrub; stem slender, terete, rather densely strigose with 
slightly tuberculate-based hairs; internodes 5.5-9 cm. long; petioles strigose, 
naked, 8-16 mm. long; blades 7.5-12 em. long, 4-5 em. wide, usually falcately 
acuminate, papery, dull green both sides, above evenly strigose or antrorsely 
short-hispid with tuberculate-based hairs, beneath evenly strigose on veins 
and surface, densely so on costa, serrate nearly throughout with small acute 
teeth (about 1 mm. long, 3-6 mm. apart), tripli- or subquintuplinerved, 
slightly prominulous-reticulate beneath; panicle dense, many-headed, 3 cm. 
wide, its hair looser than those of stem, mostly erectish; heads obovoid-ob- 
long, about 8 mm. high (including corollas but excluding stamens), 4 mm. 
thick; involucre 6 mm. high; phyllaries 4.5-5 mm. long, 4-5 mm. wide; pistil- 
late flowers 4, of which 3 are paleate, with pales similar to the inner phyl- 
laries, the corollas white, glabrous, 4-toothed, 3 mm. long, the ovaries strictly 
glabrous, obovoid, 2 mm. long; hermaphrodite flowers 7-8, of which 1 is 
sometimes provided with a small pale, their corollas white, hispidulous on 
teeth, 3.8 mm. long (tube 1 mm., throat campanulate, 2 mm., teeth deltoid, 
0.8 mm.), their ovaries linear-prismatic, 3 mm. long, glabrous or with a 
very few hairs at apex. 

Peru: Marcapata Valley, near Chilechile, Prov. Quispicanchi, Dept. 
a 21 Feb. 1929, A. Weberbauer 7864 (type no. 1,442,738, U. S. Nat. 

erb.). 


> 


330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 14 


Related to C. lerocarpum Steetz and C. anceps Greenm., and distinguished 
by its combination of strigose branches and crowded but not glomerate heads. 


Rudbeckia californica var. glauca Blake, var. nov. 


Folia glauca margine tuberculato-hispidula ceterum glabra; phyllaria 
margine hispidula ceterum glabra vel subglabra. 

OREGON: Just west of Cornutt, Douglas Co., 26 July 1918, W. EH. Law- 
rence 2102; Rogue River Valley, 12 July 1887, T. Howell; near Wimmer, Jack- 
son Co., 22 July 1892, H. W. Hammond 207; upland marshes near Waldo, 
5 June 1884, 7. Howell. 

CALIFORNIA: One clump along brook, about 20 miles NE. of Crescent 
City, Del Norte Co., on road to Grants Pass, 30 Aug. 1927, S. F. Blake 
10377 (type no. 1,488,180, U. S. Nat. Herb.); eight miles south of Waldo 
(Oregon), Del Norte Co., 14 June 1904, C. V. Piper 6103; Mt. Eddy, Siskiyou 
Co., 30 Aug. 1912, A. Hastwood 2047; same locality, 1 Sept. 1913, L. H. Smith 
557; same locality, alt. 1675 m., 8 Sept. 1903, H. B. Copeland (distr. C. F. 
Baker 3862); railroad to Castle Lake, Siskiyou Co., 4 July 1913, L. E. Smith. 


Typical Rudbeckia californica A. Gray, with the leaves green and rather 
evenly pubescent on both surfaces, especially beneath, with soft or rough 
hairs, and with dorsally pubescent phyllaries, is confined, so far as indicated 
by the material in the U. 8. National Herbarium, to the Sierra Nevada of 
California from Tulare to Eldorado Counties. The form occurring on Mt. 
Eddy and in the Siskiyous appears very distinct in its usually glaucous and 
thicker leaves which are hispidulous on margin but glabrous on the surface, 
but in the absence of any observed distinctions in other characters, beyond 
a similar difference in the pubescence of the phyllaries, it does not seem to 
merit specific rank. In two sheets of the northern plant (Hammond 207 and 
Lawrence 2102) the leaves are sparsely strigose or hirsute on the costa beneath 
or on both sides and not obviously glaucous. All the specimens from Siskiyou 
County have somewhat thinner, coarsely dentate stem leaves; those of the 
other specimens cited, including the type, are thicker and entire or subentire. 


Wedelia ambigens Blake, sp. nov. 


Herbacea (?); caulis obtuse quadrangularis 4-suleatus in angulis strigil- 
losus; folia opposita ovata falcato-acuminata basi late rotundata triplinervia 
supra asperula subtus submolliter griseo-pubescentia crenato-serrata, petiolo 
tenui; capitula mediocria flava radiata pauca irregulariter cymosa; involucri 
ca. 7 mm. alti gradati phyllaria basi pallida indurata, apice herbaceo lanceo- 
lato acuminato squarroso subaequali; radii ca. 11, ca. 1.5 cm. longi; paleae 
rigide acuminatae; pappus‘coroniformis non stipitatus. 


Sometimes subscandent; stem pithy, about 3 mm. thick; internodes 
usually 7-16 cm. long; petioles strigose or strigillose and somewhat hispid, 
1-3.5 cm. long; blades 9.5-15 cm. long, 5-8.5 cm. wide, usually unequal at 
base, crenate-serrate (teeth small, acute, usually 1.5-4 mm. apart), thin, 
above deep green, antrorse-hispid with slightly tuberculate-based hairs and 
minutely tuberculate-hispidulous, beneath paler green or in youth griseous, 
rather densely hirsute-pilose with antrorse or spreading hairs (denser and 
longer along the veins) and sessile-glandular, triplinerved 5-10 mm. above 
base (sometimes with 2-3 pairs of weaker veins below) and loosely prominu- 


AuG. 19, 1931 BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE Ba 


lous-reticulate beneath; cymes terminating stems and branches, irregular, 
3-4-headed, the peduncles normally 1-flowered, 3-7.5 cm. long, densely 
strigose or erectish-pubescent, usually naked, slender; heads 2.5-3.5 cm. 
wide; disk about 6-8 mm. high, 1-1.2 cm. thick; involucre about 3-seriate, 
slightly graduate or subequal, the phyllaries lanceolate to lance-ovate, about 
2 mm. wide, densely pubescent outside with subappressed hairs, the base . 
indurated, 3—-5-vittate, the squarrose herbaceous apex subequal or somewhat 
shorter; rays about 11, yellow, pistillate, the tube 1 mm. long, the lamina 
narrowly oblong, 2-dentate, sparsely hirsutulous at base and along nerves of 
back, 11—-13-nerved, about 15 mm. long, 3-5 mm. wide; disk flowers numerous, 
their corrollas yellow, hispidulous above, about 6 mm. long (tube 1.5 mm., 
throat funnelform, 3 mm., teeth elongate-triangular, acuminate, 1.6-1.8 
mm. long); receptacle flattish ; pales of medium breadth, densely and minutely 
hispidulous on keel and above, ciliolate and sparsely hispid on margin above, 
firm, gradually narrowed into a stiff acuminate tip, about 5 mm. long; ray 
achenes plumply trigonous, minutely hispidulous at the subtruncate apex, 
2 mm. long, 1.6 mm. wide, their pappus a thick denticulate crown about 0.3 
mm. high; disk achenes plump, compressed, obovoid, broad-based, minutely 
hispidulous and obscurely biauriculate at the subtruncate apex, 2.3 mm. long, 
1.8 mm. wide, their pappus a thick denticulate crown 0.3 mm. high; style 
branches tipped with subulate acuminate hispidulous appendages about 0.4 
mm. long. 

VENEZUELA: Hills, vicinity of Cristobal Colon, 5 Jan-—22 Feb. 1923, 
W. E. Broadway 149 (type no. 1,188,477, U. S. Nat. Herb.), 591; Chacaito 
Gorge, around Caracas, 24 April 1921, alt. 800-1000 m., H. Pitter 9487; 
forming thicket in damp shady places, descent from Valera to Motatan 
Bridge, on road to Carvajal, Dept. Trujillo, 21 Nov. 1922, Pittier 10754. 


Like W. penninervia, to which it is not remotely related, this species has 
much the aspect of Wulffia. Itis readily distinguished from W. penninervia 
by its triplinerved leaves and different stem pubescence. From W. latifolia 
DC., of Colombia, with which W. heterophylla and W. symmetrica Rusby 
are probably identical, it differs in stem, involucre, pales, pappus, and 
pubescence. 


Wedelia penninervia Blake, sp. nov. 


Herba (?); caulis quadrangularis 4-suleatus dense breviterque patenti- 
hirsutus; folia opposita ovata majuscula acuminata base late rotundata 
crenato-serrata supra asperula subtus dense moliterque griseopilosa, petiolo 
nudo ca. 2.5 em. longo; capitula mediocria apice caulis ca. 5-6 irregulariter 
cymosa pedunculata; involucri ca. 3-seriati paullum gradati ca. 7 mm. alti 
appressi phyllaria late ovata acuminata dense subappresse pubescentia 
subherbacea; radii ca. 14, 9 mm. longa; paleae rigide acuminatae; pappus 
coroniformis non stipitatus. 


Stem ca. 3 mm. thick, obtusely 4-angled, usually deeply 4-sulcate, pithy, 
densely and rather harshly short-hirsute with spreading hairs about 0.7 mm. 
long, glabrescent below; internodes mostly 4-6 cm. long, sometimes greatly 
elongated; petioles pubescent like the stem, 1.5-2.8 em. long; blades 10—-17.5 
cm. long, 4.5-7.5 em. wide, falecate-acuminate, broadly rounded and usually 
slightly unequal at base, crenate-serrate nearly throughout (teeth acute, 
small, mostly 2-5 mm. apart), subchartaceous, above deep green, evenly 
antrorse-hirsute on surface, more densely so on veins, with minutely tubercu- 


332 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 14 


late-based hairs, beneath densely and uniformly pilose with antrorse or erect 
minutely tuberculate-based hairs, featherveined, the ca. 8-10 pairs of chief 
veins and the secondaries impressed above, prominulous-reticulate beneath; 
pedicels densely pubescent like the stem, at first only 1.5-3 cm. long, at 
length 3.5-6 em.; heads hemispheric-campanulate, in anthesis 2.5 cm. wide; 
disk 8-9 mm. high, 1.5—1.8 em. thick; phyllaries somewhat glabrescent below, 
2.5-3.8 mm. wide, slightly indurate at base; rays about 14, yellow, pistillate, 
the tube obscurely puberulous, 1.5 mm. long, the lamina elliptic-oblong, 
unequally 2-dentate, puberulous on back and hirsutulous on the 2 chief 
nerves, 9-11-nerved, 9 mm. long, 3.5 mm. wide; disk flowers numerous, yellow, 
their corollas hispidulous above, 6 mm. long (tube 1.7 mm., throat cylindrid- 
funnelform, 3.1 mm., teeth triangular-ovate, 1.2 mm. long); pales hispidulous 
on keel, ciliolate above, gradually tapering into the stiff subulate erect tip, 
about 7 mm. long; ray achenes plumply trigonous, 2.5 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, 
puberulous on the subtruncate apex, auriculate on the 2 outer angles at apex, 
the pappus at first of 3 toothlike awns about 0.5 mm. long and a lacerate 
crown of connate squamellae about half as long, at maturity reduced to a 
denticulate crown about 0.3 mm. high; disk achenes plumply quadrangular, 
3 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, puberulous on the truncate-rounded apex, their 
pappus a lacerate crown about 0.3 mm. high, about a third as broad as apex 
of achene; style branches tipped with a subulate acuminate appendage about 
0.7 mm. long. 

Cotomsia: Thicket in quebrada, Cordillera Oriental, east of Neiva, 
Dept. Huila, alt. 800-1000 m., 31 July 1917, H. H. Rusby & F. W. Pennell 
410 (type in herb. N. Y. Bot. Gard.; photog. and fragm., U. S. Nat. Herb.); 
in quebrada, same locality and date, alt. 700-1500 m., Rusby & Pennell 
513 (N. Y. Bot. Gard.). 


A plant suggestive of some forms of Wulffia in appearance, and distin- 
guished from related species of its region by its involucre and its penninerved 
leaves, which are densely and softly pubescent beneath. The smallerleaves 
are occasionally somewhat triplinerved through the enlargement of about the 
third pair of veins above the base. The type collection is described as a 
shrubby vine, the other collection as an herb. The plant is probably herbace- 
ous or suffrutescent and occasionally leaning or subscandent. 


Wedelia trilobata var. pilosissima Blake, var. nov. 


Planta habitu, foliis trilobatis, pedunculis brevibus, ete., formae typicae 
W. trilobatae (L.) Hitche. valde similis, differt caule densissime patenti- 
piloso pilis ca. 2 mm. longis. 

Peru: Pebas, July 1929, L. Williams 1913 (type no. 1,444,044, U.S. Nat. 
Herb.); La Victoria, Aug—Sept. 1929, Williams 2587; Caballo-Cocha, Aug. 
1929, Wilkams 2313. 

All the localities cited for this variety are on the Amazon River in the 
Department of Loreto. 


Wedelia brasiliensis var. villosa (Baker) Blake. 


Wedelia paludosa var. villosa Baker in Mart., Fl. Bras. 6?: 181. 1884. 


A specimen without data collected in 1921 by the Mulford Biological 
Exploration of the Amazon Basin (no. 2172) agrees with Baker’s description 


eawesd'9 1931. BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE 309 


of this variety. I have elsewhere shown’ that the name Wedelia paludosa 
DC. must be replaced by W. brasiliensis (Spreng.) Blake, based on Acmella 
brasilensis Spreng. 


Helianthus anomalus Blake, sp. nov. 


Herba, basi invisa; caulis albidus ramosus sparse breviterque tuberculato- 
hispida; folia alterna ovata v. lanceolato-ovate obtusa v. acuta basi cuneata 
integra 3-nervia crassa subcoriacea laete viridia tuberculato-hispidula, 
petiolo tenui longo; capitula 1-2 majuscula; involucri 2-seriati ca. 2 em. alti 
gradati phyllaria lineari-lanceolata acuminata sparse tuberculato-hispida ad 
basim subciliata erecta discum superantia; radii flavi ca. 10 ca, 2 cm. longi; 
corollae disci tenues, dentibus purpureis; achenia disci appresse pilosa; 
pappus e aristis ca. 18 inaequalibus 1.24.5 mm. longis caducissimis com- 
positus. 

Plant 30 em. high and more; stem stoutish, 4 mm. thick, leafy, rather 
sparsely short-hispid with white, tuberculate-based, upcurved conic hairs 
about 1 mm. long; internodes mostly 1.5-3 cm. long; petioles narrowly cuneate- 
margined at apex, 1.2-3.3 cm. long, pubescent like the stem; blades 4.5— 
8 em. long, 1.2-3.2 cm. wide, cuneate or cuneate-rounded at base and then 
shortly and narrowly decurrent on apex of petiole, thick and rigid, evenly 
hispid or hispidulous on both surfaces with short conic tuberculate-based 
white hairs, those on the margin with extremely swollen bases; peduncles 
solitary at apex of stem and in the uppermost axils, 4-9 cm. long, slender, 
pubescent like the stem; heads about 5 cm. wide; disk hemispheric, about 1.5 
em. high. 1.5-2 cm. wide, smaller in reduced heads; involucre 1.7—2.7 cm. 
high, of about 16 linear-lanceolate acuminate herbaceous phyllaries, indurate 
at extreme base, l-vittate, sparsely tuberculate-hispid and more or less 
definitely hispid-ciliate especially below, 1-2 mm. wide; rays yellow, 1.8-2.3 
em. long, 6-9 mm. wide, 11—13-nerved, emarginate; disk corollas stipitate- 
glandular and sparsely hispidulous on tube, finely hispidulous on base of 
throat and teeth, greenish white with purple teeth, 6.8-7.5 mm. long (tube 1.5— 
1.8 mm., throat cylindric-funnelform, 4.3-5.2 mm., teeth deltoid-ovate, 0.8 
mm. long); pales scarious, hispidulous toward apex, usually 3-lobed, the 
lateral lobes merely small teeth, the median about 4 mm. long, acuminate, 
subulate-pointed, sometimes purplish-tinged at tip; ray achenes inane, their 
pappus much as in the disk; disk achenes oblong, plump, 4.5 mm. long, 1.8 
mm. wide, mottled black and white, appressed-pilose with fulvous hairs; 
pappus of 2 slender hispidulous awns 44.5 mm. long and on each side between 
them about 6-8 similar unequal awns 1.2-3.5 mm. long, the whole caducous; 
style branches purplish, hispid dorsally, tipped with a linear-subulate obtusish 
hispidulous appendage about 0.8 mm. long. 

Urau: Desert south of Hawksville, Wayne Co., alt. 1370 m., 5 July 1930, 
W. D. Stanton 328 (type no. 1,487,743, U. S. Nat. Herb.; dupl. in herb. 
Brigham Young University, no. 4806). 


A very interesting plant, amply distinct in characters of foliage and in- 
volucre, and remarkably set off from all other known species by its pappus, 
which carries to an extreme the tendency found in various other species to 
produce additional squamellae between the two constantly present marginal 
awns. Further specimens showing the base of the plant are much to be 
desired. 


7 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 26: 250. 1930. 


334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 14 


Enceliopsis covillei (A. Nels.) Blake. 


Helianthella argophylla Coville, Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 4: 132. 1893, as 
to descr. only. (Not H. argophylla (D. C. Eaton) A. Gray.) 

Encelia grandiflora Jones, Proc. Calif. Acad. II. 5: 702. 1895. Not E. 
grandiflora (Benth.) Hemsl. 1881. 

Helianthella covillec A. Nels., Bot. Gaz. 37: 273. 1904. 

Enceliopsis grandiflora A. Nels., Bot. Gaz. 47: 483. 1909; Blake, Proce. 
Amer. Acad. 49: 354. 1913. : 


Oyedaea oxylepis Blake, sp. nov. 


Suffrutescens (?); Caulis strigosus; folia opposita elliptico-oblonga crenato- 
serrulata acuta basi cuneata penninervia supra aspera subtus hirsuto-pilosa 
ca. 8 cm. longa 3 cm. lata; capitula minuscula saepius solitaria terminalia 
breviter pedunculata; involucri 5-7 mm. alti subaequalis ca. 3-triseriati 
phyllaria ovato-lanceolata acuminata strigosa, apice herbaceo patente supra 
lepidoto-hispidulo. 

Stem (above) slender, brownish, striatulate, subterete, densely strigose or 
erectish-hirsute with slightly tuberculate-based hairs and between them 
sordid-pilosulous; upper internodes 3-6 cm. long; petioles about 3 mm. long, 
pubescent like the stem; blades (4) 6-8.5 cm. long (1.5) 2-3.2 em. wide, 
acute or acuminate, callous-tipped, above harshly pubescent with antrorse- 
curved hairs with persistent lepidote bases, antrorse-hirsute along costa, 
beneath evenly but not densely hirsute-pilose with spreading or antrorse- 
curved hairs and gland-dotted, crenate-serrulate above the entire cuneate 
base with about 5-9 pairs of apiculate depressed teeth (8-8 mm. apart). 
firm-herbaceous, the principal lateral veins about 6-12 pairs, with the minor 
veins prominulous-reticulate beneath; peduncles terminal in forks of stem 
and branches, 1(—2)-headed, naked or 1-bracteate, 1-2.5 cm. long, pubescent 
like the stem; heads 2 cm. wide; disk (as pressed) 9-10 mm. high, 7-10 mm. 
thick; involucre slightly obgraduate or subequal, the 2 outer series of phyl- 
laries lance-ovate, 2.5-3 mm. wide at base, strigose and strigillose, the some- 
what longer herbaceous apex spreading at least in age, lepidote-hispidulous 
above, the innermost series with short bluntish subherbaceous tips; rays about 
8, yellow, neutral, the tube 2.5 mm. long, sparsely hirsutulous, the lamina 
narrowly oblong, emarginate, with 4 principal nerves, 11 mm. long, 3 mm. 
wide; disk corollas not very numerous, yellow, essentially glabrous except on 
teeth, 6.5 mm. long (tube 2.3 mm., throat slender-funnelform, 3.5mm., teeth © 
ovate, 0.7 mm. long, sparsely hispidulous at apex, papillose on margin within) ; 
pales narrow, acute, densely hirsutulous at apex, about 6 mm. long; disk 
achenes (submature) oblong, compressed, blackish, 3 mm. long, sparsely 
strigose on the faces, densely hispidulous-ciliolate on margin, very narrowly 
winged on one margin, scarcely at all on other; pappus of 2 slender fragile 
hispidulous awns 2.5-3 mm. long and on each side between them about 4-6 
short awns, connate at base, mostly about 1.1 mm. long, the lateral ones 
sometimes up to 1.5 mm. long. 

Pru: ‘Weed”’ in forest, San Roque, Dept. San Martin, alt. 1350-1500 
m., 7 Jan. 1930, Llewelyn Williams 6992 (type No. 629616, herb. Field. Mus.; 
dupl. No. 1,495,543, U. S. Nat. Herb.). 


A member of a group of half a dozen closely related Andean species, of which 
the closest is probably the Bolivian O. rusbyz Blake. In the latter the heads 


AuG. 19, 1931 BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE 335 


are numerous and the phyllaries have much shorter and relatively broader 
bluntish herbaceous tips. 


Actinea helenioides (Rydb.) Blake. 


Picradenia helenioides Rydb., Bull. Torrey Club 28: 21. 1901. 

Hymenoxys helenioides Cockerell, Bull. Torrey Club 31: 481. 1904. 

Dugaldia helenioides A. Nels. in Coult. & Nels., New Man. Bot. Rocky Mts. 
562. 1909. 


This species has continued to be known only from the type collection made 
at Sangre de Cristo Creek, south-central Colorado, alt. 2400-2700 m., 2 July 
1900, by P. A. Rydberg and F. K. Vreeland (no. 5495). A considerable 
extension of range is shown by a specimen in the U. 8. Forest Service herba- 
rium collected on ridge running east from Castle Valley Ridge, about 5 miles 
southeast of Clearcreek, in the Manti Forest, Carbon Co., Utah, alt. 2930 m., 
25 August 1914, by W. R. Chapline, Jr. (no. 80). Through the courtesy of 
Dr. E. D. Merrill, I have been able to compare with this specimen two sheets 
of the type collection in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden. 
In the original specimens the rays are not fully developed. Those of Mr. 
Chapline’s plant have the lamina 1.8—-2 em. long and 4-6 mm. wide. 


Dyssodia remota Blake, sp. nov. 


Fruticulus diffusus; caulis obscure hirtellus ramosus; folia opposita pin- 
natipartita ca. 2.56 em. longa, segmentis 5 lineari-ellipticis utrinque acutis 
glanduloso-crenatis glabris subcoriaceis; capitula terminalia solitaria medio- 
ceria flava radiata breviter pedunculata; involucri primarii 1 em. alti 2-seriati 
aequalis phyllaria oblonga obtusa ad apicem ciliolata libera glanduloso- 
notata, calyculo e. phyllariis ca. 5 parvis subulatis sistente praediti; pappi 
paleae ca. 15, quaque in aristas 24 dissecta. 

“Half-trailing’’ undershrub, several-stemmed, about 30 cm. long; stems 
oppositely branched; branches slender, obscurely hirtellous somewhat in 
lines, leafy; internodes 0.4-3.5 cm. long; petioles narrowly margined, 3-6 
mm. long, glabrous, bearing toward base 1-3 pairs of setaceous lobes 2.5 mm. 
long or less; blades ovate in outline, 1-3.3 cm. long, 1-1.8 em. wide, divided 
to the narrowly winged rachis, the leaflets 3-5, the lateral 5-11 mm. long, 1- 
2.5 mm. wide, the terminal 0.8-2 5 cm. long, 2-4 mm. wide, all sessile but 
usually contracted at base, crenate with 2-4 pairs of very rounded teeth, a 
round yellowish gland in each notch; peduncles 1—1.5 cm. long, slender, 
glabrous; heads about 2-3 em. wide; disk campanulate, 14 mm. high, 10 mm. 
thick; involucre double, the outer of about 5 narrowly subulate phyllaries 3- 
5.5 mm. long, ciliolate, sometimes with 1 or 2 linear-lanceolate lobes toward 
base, the inner of about 9 equal 2-seriate phyllaries, these oblong, obtuse (the 
outer 3 mm. wide, the inner 4.5 mm.), ciliolate above, otherwise glabrous, 
erose below, substramineous, with indurated and thickened extreme base, 
1-ribbed, finely several-vittate, bearing usually a pair of subbasal linear oil 
glands and 1 or 2 shorter subterminal ones; receptacle flat; rays about 5, 
yellow, fertile, the tube 4 mm. long, puberulous, the lamina elliptic, entire or 
2-denticulate, 7-9-nerved, 7.5 mm. long, 3 mm. wide; disk flowers about 38, 
their corollas yellow, cylindric-funnelform, puberulous near middle and on 
teeth, 7 mm. long (tube 2.8 mm., throat 2.8 mm., teeth triangular, 1.4 mm. 


336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 14 


long); achenes of ray and disk similar, linear-cylindric, subterete or somewhat 
flattened, 4 mm. long, densely hirsutulous; pappus 6 mm. long, straw-color, 
1-seriate, of about 15 paleae dissected nearly to base into 2-4 slender hispidu- 
lous bristles, the lateral bristles somewhat-shorter than the inner; style branches 
with short deltoid obtusish subglabrous appendages. 

Perv: Half-trailing on grassy canyon ledges or slopes, Llata, Dept. Huan- 
uco, alt. 2135 m., 21 Aug. 1922, Macbride & Featherstone 2241 (type no. 518725, 
herb. Field Mus.; dupl. no. 1,186,055, U.S. Nat. Herb.). 


Nearest Dyssodia jelskiz Hieron., also of Peru, which is described as having 
cuneate-obovate merely dentate leaves and outer phyllaries (bracteoles) 
equalling the inner. 


Cirsium rhothophilum Blake, nom. nov. 


Carduus maritima (sic) Elmer, Bot. Gaz. 39: 45. 1905. 

Cirstum. marittmum Petrak, Beiheft. Bot. Centralbl. 35: Abt. 2: 288. 
1917. Not Cirscum maritimum Makino, Bot. Mag. Tokyo 24: 249. 
1910. 


Petrak’s reason for transferring Elmer’s name to Cirszwm, when at the 
same time he cited an earlier use of the name Cirszeum maritimum by Makino 
for a new species described from Japan, is not obvious. At any rate, this 
very distinct species, known only from the type locality at Surf, Santa Barbara 
County, California, must receive anewname. The one here given (from pé6os, 
the dash of waves) refers to its habitat on sand dunes on the seacoast. 


BOTANY.—The genus Lozanella.| E. P. Kiuurp and C. V. Morton 
U. 8. National Museum. 

Lozanella, a genus of Ulmaceae of the tribe Celtidoideae, was 
established by Greenman in 1905 and to it was referred a single species, 
L. trematoides, proposed at the same time and based upon a Pringle 
collection from Hidalgo, Mexico. Three years previously, however, 
Donnell Smith had described from Costa Rican material a species in 
the genus Trema, T. enantiophylla, which clearly is identical with 
Lozanella trematoides. 

In the course of studies of tropical American Urticaceae which the 
senior author has been making, several specimens have been observed 
in unidentified material referred to that family which, though evidently 
representing a single genus, did not belong to Urticaceae. Compari- 
son of these specimens with type material of Lozanella trematoides and 
Trema enantiophylla deposited in the National Herbarium shows that 
they represent two species of Lozanella, one the species described by 
Donnell Smith and by Greenman, the other new. 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re- 
ceived June 1, 1931. 


auG. 19, 1931 KILLIP AND MORTON: LOZANELLA Oot 


Of special note is the fact that the additional collections of the 
original species were made at widely separated localities, in Guate- 
mala, in Costa Rica, in the Santa Marta Mountains and the Eastern 
and Western Cordilleras of Colombia, and in northern Peru. The 
second species has a more limited distribution, ranging from south- 


eastern Peru to central Bolivia. 
The tribe Celtidoideae is distinguished by its drupaceous fruit and 


curved embryos. 


Celtis and a few related genera are at once dis- 


TABLE 1. CHARACTERS OF CERTAIN CELTIDOIDEAE 
Lozanella Trema Parasponia | Aphananthe Gironniera Chaetacme 

Range Mexico to | Through- | Malay Japan, Eastern Africa 
Boliva out Old} Archipel-| Philip- Asia and 

and New| ago and | pine Is., | Pacific Is. 
World Pacific Australia 
Tropics Is. 

Cotyledons | Broad, Narrow, Narrow, | Narrow, | Narrow, Narrow, 
searcely recurved, | recurved | recurved | recurved recurved, 
curved, equal unequal 
equal 

Leaves Opposite, | Alternate, ; Alternate, | Alternate, | Alternate, | Alternate, 
serrate serrate serrate serrate entire or | entire 

serrate 

Stipules United Free United Free United United 

Inflores- Dioecious | Frequently | Frequently) Dioecious | Dioecious | Dioecious 

cence monoe- monoe- 
cious cious 

Aestivation | Imbricate | Valvate or | Imbricate | Valvate Imbricate | Valvate 
or slightly | slightly 
valvate imbricate 
above above 

Endosperm | Fleshy Fleshy Fleshy Thin or | Fleshy or | Practi- 

none none cally 
none 

Other char- | Branches 2 flowers 2 flowers | Spines 

acters all oppo- solitary ecymose or | present 
site solitary 


tinguished by their broad, contorted cotyledons. 


genera of the tribe have uncontorted narrower cotyledons. 


Trema, Parasponia, Aphananthe, Gironniera, and Chaetacme. 


The remaining 
They are: 


The 


relationship of Lozanella to these genera, which other than Tema are 
all Old World, is far from clear. They all have alternate leaves and 
narrow recurved cotyledons, whereas Lozanella has opposite leaves 
and broad, scarcely curved cotyledons. The united stipules of 
Lozanella are found also in Parasponia, Gironniera, and Chaetacme. 


338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 14 


The opposite branches of Lozanella are characteristic. The various 
characters are summarized in Table 1. 


KEY TO SPECIES OF LOZANELLA 


Mature leaves densely pubescent beneath, the hairs yellowish; petioles and 
rachises densely pubescent; pistillate inflorescences simple or with short 
lateral branches, the flowers congested; perianth lobes much imbricate 

1. L. permollis. 

Mature leaves not densely pubescent beneath, the hairs whitish; petioles and 
rachises sparingly pubescent; pistillate inflorescences conspicuously 
branched, the flowers solitary or clustered; perianth lobes imbricate below, 
becoming somewhat induplicate-valvate above...... 2. L. enantiophylla. 


Lozanella permollis Killip & Morton, sp. nov. 


Arbor inermis dioica; caules pubescentes; folia opposita, elliptica, petiolata, 
apice acuminata, basi late obliqueque cuneata, serrata, basi integra, supra 
scabra, subtus molliter lanata, nervis reticulatis, stipulis caducis, intraaxil- 
laribus, in ramis cicatrices circulares conspicuas reliquentibus; ~ inflores- 
centia cymosa, ramosa, floribus aggregatis, pedicellis brevibus, bracteatis; 
perianthium 5-partitum, laciniis imbricatis, carinatis, obtusis, ciliatis; stamina 
5, perianthii laciniis opposita, hypogyna, sub disco piloso inserta, aestivatione 
erecta; filamenta subulata, exserta; antherae dorso supra basim adfixae, 
introrsae; @ inflorescentia axillaris, ramis lateralibus nullis vel brevibus; 
rachis dense pubescens; flores sessiles; perianthii laciniae aequales, oblongae, 
sub fructu persistentes; staminodia nulla; drupa parva, monosperma, stylis 
marcescentibus coronata; ovulum unum, pendulum. 

Dioecious tree about 8 meters high; branches of previous season terete, 
sparingly pubescent, leafless; branches of the season leafy, more pubescent, 
increasingly so toward the growing tip, the hairs dense, matted, ferru- 
ginous; stipules united around the stem, caducous, leaving conspicuous 
circular scars; petioles flattened, 1.5 to 4 em. long, densely spreading yellow- 
pubescent; leaves opposite, elliptic, broadest at middle, the blades 9 by 4 cm. 
to 17.5 by 8.5 cm., acuminate at apex, broadly cuneate and oblique at base, 
conspicuously serrate (teeth curving toward apex), entire near base, above 
dark green, prominently scabrous, the hairs white, pustulate, beneath paler, 
densely pubescent, the hairs appressed, long, yellowish, confined to the veins | 
and veinlets (young leaves velvety pubescent), conspicuously reticulate- 
venose beneath, 3-nerved from the base, the midnerve giving rise to about 3 
pairs of secondary veins, the two outer nerves exteriorly to 7 or 8 secondary 
veins, the principal nerves impressed above; staminate inflorescences cymose, 
several in each leaf axil, divaricately branched, the flowers borne in small 
clusters, the peduncle about 1 cm. long, with dense pubescence similar to 
that of stem and petiole, the pedicel very short or subobsolete, bracteate; 
perianth 5-lobed, the lobes 3 mm. long, about 1.6 mm. wide, obtuse, scarious- 
margined, conspicuously carinate, free almost to base, prominently imbricate 
in bud, sparingly pubescent on both sides, long-ciliate; hypogynous disk 
present, densely long white-hairy ; stamens borne on border of disk, 5, opposite 
perianth segments; filaments 3 mm. long at maturity, subulate, glabrous, 
exserted; anthers erect from the beginning, introrse, oval, 1.2 mm. long; 
rudimentary ovary present, small; pistillate inflorescences several in each leaf 
axil, not divaricately branched, the lateral branches none or very short, 


AuG. 19, 1931 KILLIP AND MORTON: LOZANELLA 309 


the peduncle about 1 cm. long, densely pubescent like the petioles, the flowers 
borne in sessile clusters along the pubescent axis; flowers sessile; perianth 
segments 5, equal, imbricate, oblong, 1 mm. long, about 0.7 mm. wide, obtuse, 
sparingly pubescent on both sides, ciliate, persistent and becoming fleshy in 
fruit, the base then rather stipitate; hypogynous disk present, fleshy, densely 
long white-hairy; staminodia none; fruit a drupe, about 1 mm. wide and long, 
compressed laterally, green, glabrous, the flesh thin; styles 2, conspicuously 
hairy, about 1 mm. long, persistent on the fruit; seed oval, compressed, yellow, 
the pericarp thin; ovule solitary, pendulous from the summit of ovary; 
embryo immature. 

Type of staminate plant in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,156,898, 
collected at Unduavi, South Yungas, Department of La Paz, Bolivia, Novem- 
ber, 1900, altitude 3100 meters, by O. Buchtien (No. 2814). Additional 
material of this collection, U.S. N. H. No. 1,044,987. 

Type of pistillate plant in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,156,897, 
collected at same time and place by O. Buchtien (No. 2815). Additional 
material of this collection, U.S. N. H. No. 1,044,988. 

Additional specimens examined: BOLIVIA: COCHABAMBA: Incachaca, Pro- 
vince of Sacaba, 2500 meters alt. Steznbach 5788 (F’), 5819 (F). Prrv: 
cuzco: Lucumayo Valley, Cook & Gilbert 1376 (N). 


Lozanella enantiophylla (Donn. Smith) Killip & Morton. 


Trema enantiophylla Donn. Smith, Bot. Gaz. 33: 259. 1902. 

Lozanella trematoides Greenm., Proc. Amer. Acad. 41: 236. 1905. 

Specimens examined: Mexico: H1pALGo: Near Honey Station, Pringle 
8983 (N, type collection of L. trematoides). Barranca below Trinidad Iron 
Works, 1,550 meters alt., Pringle 13607 (N). GUATEMALA: CHIMALTEN- 
ANGO: Volcdin Acatenango, 2500 meters alt., Kellerman 6611 (F). Costa 
RICA: HERIDA: Cerros de Zurqui, northeast of San Isidro, 2,000—2,400 
meters alt., Standley & Valerio 50357 (N). SAN José: Rio Pedregoso, near 
El Copey, 1800 meters alt., Tonduz (Donn. Smith 7517B, Inst. Nat. Costarie. 
11734, N). carrago: Estrella, Cooper 325 (Donn. Smith 5949, N, type). 
El Mufieco, Rio Navarro, 1,400—-1,500 meters alt., Standley & Torres 51108 
(N). CoLOMBIA: MAGDALENA: Santa Marta Mountains, H. H. Smith 
1437 (N). SANTANDER: Las Vegas, 2,600 meters alt., Killip & Smith 16133 
(N). caLpAs: Rio San Rafael, below Cerro Tatamd, 2,600-2,800 meters alt., 
Pennell 10373 (N). Perv: LiBERTAD: Rio Mishiolla Valley, Province of 
Pataz, 2,000 meters alt., Weberbauer 7049 (F, N). 


Standley notes that this is a shrub or tree, 3 to 5 meters high; Weberbauer 
that it is a shrub 7 meters high. The plant observed in the Eastern Cordil- 
lera of Colombia by Mr. Smith and the senior author was a tree 5 to 6 meters 
high, with a rather slender trunk and a rounded crown. 


2 F, Field Museum of Natural History; N, U. S. National Herbarium. 


340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 14 


NECROLOGY.—Raoul Gautier.. Gnrorcrs PrErrier, Secretary of 
the International Association of Geodesy. (Communicated by 
WiLuiAmM Bowie.) 

The International Association of Geodesy wishes to express, by my 
voice, the feeling of gratitude of all geodesists towards Raoul Gautier, 
their promise to treasure his memory faithfully while striving to follow 
his example. 

Grandnephew of Alfred Gautier, the founder and first Director of 
the new Observatory of Geneva, son of Emile Gautier, who was its 
Director from 1883 to 1891, Raoul Gautier continued the glorious 
tradition of his family. Even if his work was mainly astronomical, 
many branches of geophysics, for example meteorology, are indebted 
to him for notable contributions. 

But it was in geodesy that he played a role of particular importance. 
It is now forty years since, upon the death of his father, he joined the 
Swiss Geodetic Commission, created in 1861, forty years during which 
his geodetic activities have not flagged for a single instant. 

Accredited representative of Switzerland, after the death of Hirsch, 
to all of the general assemblies of the old International Geodetic Asso- 
ciation—Copenhagen (1903), Budapest (1906), London (1909), Ham- 
burg (1912)—he acquired an undisputed authority among all the geod- 
esists who attended these great tribunals of our science. Many of 
them are now gone but the survivors gladly recall these reunions, 
stamped with the impress of his kindly cordiality, where the geodesists 
formed one great, united family and where Gautier’s influence again 
and again asserted itself. 

Then came the somber days of the War, involving the dissolution of 
the old Association. It was a cruel blow to Gautier, who was pro- 
foundly attached to it but, with a few friends belonging to countries 
which, like Switzerland, were not involved in the terrible conflict, with 
admirable clear sightedness, he saw his duty plainly: to strive to 
maintain the spark which would later serve to rekindle the extinguished 
torch of international geodetic work. From this idea was born the 
Reduced Geodetic Association, created by the Neutral Countries, of 
which he became President and which carried on as far as possible the 
work of the vanished Association and, in particular, insured the con- 
tinuance of the observations and computations of the important Inter- 
national Latitude Service. 


1 Address delivered at the funeral services of Prof. Raout GAUTIER, vice-president of 
the International Association of Geodesy, at the Protestant Church of Cologny, near 
Geneva, April 22, 1931. Translated by ADRIENNE Ervin. Received June 6, 1931. 
Prof. Gautier was a member of the Washington Academy of Sciences. 


AuG. 19, 1931 PERRIER: RAOUL GAUTIER 341 


Moreover, after an international conference held by the Allies and 
Neutrals at Brussels in 1919, he made a reality of the lofty conception 
of new international scientific unions, branches of a supreme council, 
the International Research Council, and when Raoul Gautier went to 
Rome in 1922 to attend the first General Assembly of one of these 
unions, the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, he was 
unanimously elected Vice President of the Section (now called Associa- 
tion) of Geodesy, an office that he held until his death. 

Since that time, I have had the honor of collaborating intimately 
with him, as is shown by an active correspondence with him, which I 
shall never hereafter read over without emotion and heaviness of heart. 
The part played by Gautier was most difficult; to us geodesists of the 
succeeding generation he stood as the one who continued the tradi- 
tions of the old Association and as a bond between the past and 
the present. 

T can say that, always and everywhere, he was inspired by love of his 
country and by the higher interests of science. If the old Section of 
Geodesy of the Union, transformed to-day by the change of too modest 
a title into the International Association of Geodesy, now stands as a 
powerful organization that includes 37 civilized countries, it is due in 
large part to the mollifying influence and eminent authority of Raoul 
Gautier. 

Alas, most of our colleagues of the Association saw him for the last 
time, four years ago, at the General Assembly in Prague. Age and 
the prudence imposed on him by attacks of an illness which impeded 
his physical activity without in any way diminishing his mental ac- 
tivity were the reasons which, notwithstanding his sincere desire to 
attend the General Assembly at Stockholm last year, forbade his going 
there. We missed him greatly. His experience, his shrewd grasp on 
the realities, his poise, would have been very useful to us at a difficult 
period in the existence of our Association, the moment of the renewal 
of the Statutes. I recall with what interest he heard the account that 
I gave him of our work, as he judged with serene impartiality our dis- 
cussions and our decisions. 

In the address that we sent him when, on February 25, 1928, his 
colleagues and friends in Geneva organized a ceremony in his honor on 
the occasion of his retirement, we expressed the wish and the hope that, 
for many years to come, he might aid us by his eminent experience and 
his counsel. That hope has been denied, but the memory of his life so 
nobly lived will remain for us a very real inspiration. 


2 


342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 14 


My dear Vice President, I bid you farewell, in the name of our 
President, Mr. Bowie, of your colleagues, of our Executive Committee, 
and of the geodesists who were your friends and who, at this very 
moment, feel as a cruel shock the news of your death. 

Farewell! 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


631ST MEETING 


The 631st meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington was held 
on Tuesday, March 17, 1931, at 4:45 P.M., in Room 42-43, National Museum, 
President Joun M. Coopnr, presiding. 

Program: Frank M. Srerzuer: The Mound-Builder cultures of the Upper 
Mississippt Valley (illustrated)—A review of the archeological cultures in 
Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Illinois and Wisconsin follows. 

In Ohio three important mound-building cultures have been established. 
Hopewell, the most spectacular, is characterized by extensive and complex 
earthworks in geometric forms covering from one to one hundred acres; by 
mounds varying in height from one foot to thirty feet, usually covering the 
remains of wooden structures; by burials, the majority of which are cremated, 
though a minority are extended type placed in prepared graves of earth and 
log structures. Artifacts with the burials are for the most part made of 
material foreign to Ohio—obsidian, copper, mica, tortoise shell, galena, 
grizzly bear teeth, and hematite. Platform pipes show a high degree of 
sculpture; terra cotta figurines depict the costumes of the people. The skulls 
are predominantly dolichocephalic and show no evidence of artificial cranial 
deformation. . 

The Fort Ancient culture is the most extensive of the Ohio group. The 
mounds are small, and numerous village sites have yielded the majority of 
artifacts. Most of the burials are in cemeteries. Artifacts are of bone and 
shell primarily, and of other indigenous materials. This is the only culture 
in Ohio in which European objects have been found, which leads Dr. Swanton 
to believe that one of the sites—Madisonville—was inhabited by the 
Monsopelia. : 

The Adena culture is now considered a group distinct from the Hopewell. 
The mounds are usually conical and occur singly and unaccompanied by 
earthworks. Burials are made throughout the mound, frequently an impor- 
tant central grave occurring below the base line. Materials from distant 
sources were extensively used, and copper was employed only for ornamental 
objects, such as bracelets, finger rings, and gorgets. Other artifacts were 
tubular pipes and projectile points of the unnotched stemmed type. 

In Indiana in the southeastern part a systematic survey and mound excava- 
tion revealed cultures similar to the Fort Ancient and Adena of Ohio. A 
mound in the southwestern part of the state exhibited characteristics evident 
in Lower Mississippi groups. Early reports indicate the possibility of a cul- 
ture related to Hopewell. 


aAuG. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 343 


In Kentucky along the Ohio River are cultures closely allied to the Fort 
Ancient. In the mountainous region of eastern Kentucky the rock shelters 
and caves contain ash layers at the bottom of which is the most primitive 
culture of the Mississippi region yet found. Even though “hominy holes,’ 
charred corn and gourd shards indicate that agriculture was practiced, there 
is no evidence of pottery. On the surface, however, pottery, woven fabrics 
and well fashioned artifacts appear. This pottery closely resembles that of 
the historic Cherokee. The culture in the central part of the state is char- 
acterized by truncated and domiciliary mounds and stone boxlike graves, 
traits which belong to the Tennessee-Cumberland cultures to the south. 

In Illinois there are five cultures. The Cahokia, near St. Louis, is a 
northern extension of a southern culture, probably Etowah. Along the 
Illinois River there are two cultures, one known as the Bluffs, the other new 
and unnamed, which is likely the oldest in the state, characterized by an 
extremely long-headed people. Bordering the Mississippi River from Iowa 
to the junction of the Spoon River with the Illinois, there is a highly developed 
Hopewell culture. In the northwest corner of the state is the southern 
extremity of the effigy culture, which centers in Wisconsin. 

Wisconsin contains four distinct archeological groups. The most wide- 
spread is known as the Lake Michigan culture, of which the effigy mounds 
are a sub-group. We find clay pipes, stone altars, bone harpoons, needles, 
and scrapers. ‘The pottery strikingly resembles that of the eastern woodland 
Algonquin tribes. A rather extensive village-dwelling culture known as 
Upper Mississippi consists of triangular arrow points, snub nosed scrapers, 
flat stone grinding mortars, Siouan type of stone pipe, bone and shell imple- 
ments, burials in the flesh both extended and flexed. Historically known Win- 
nebago sites have produced exclusively pottery similar to the Upper Missis- 
Sippi ware. 

A close variant of the Cahokia pottery has been found at Aztalan. This 
site is characterized by truncated mounds, ear spools of bone, stone and pot- 
tery, large chipped hoes, disc beads, shells, three-notched triangular arrow- 
points and perforated shell implements. The pottery is painted and bur- 
nished; the vessels are of a great variety of shapes. 

Along the Mississippi River in the southwestern part of the state a variant 
of the Ohio Hopewell is found, consisting of large conical burial mounds, 
burials made in rectangular bark lined pits covered with poles and bark slabs, 
beneath the floor of the mound. Artifacts consist of large chipped imple- 
ments of obsidian and flint, pearl beads, copper beads, plates, ear spools, celt, 
and axes. Pipes are of the concave-based type. The pottery is surprisingly 
similar to that found in Ohio. 

The greatest need at the present time is to show the relationship between 
the Upper and Lower Mississippi cultures, and more especially the tie-up 
between the prehistoric and historic Indian tribes. (Author’s abstract.) 


632ND MEETING 


The 632nd meeting of the Anthropological Society was held at the National 
Museum April 21, 1931. | 

Program: W. M. Wauker, Bureau of American Ethnology: Archeological 
reconnaissance in the Hawarian Islands (illustrated) —The island of Maui 
was chosen as representative of the culture prevailing in the Hawaiian Islands 
before the advent of the whites, and a survey of all existing ruins was made 
during a stay of nine months in 1928-29 under the provisions of a research 
Fellowship provided by the Bernice P. Bishop Museum of Honolulu. 


044 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 14 


Ancient evidences of Hawaiian culture are to be found only on the surface 
as there is little top soil covering the underlying lava formations on the sites 
of aboriginal occupation. There are indications of but one such occupation, 
although legendary accounts imply possibly two or more. Construction in 
stone made no use of cut or shaped blocks or mortar. Simple blocks and pieces 
of rough lava or water-worn stones were used where found to build the plat- 
forms and walled structures known as hezaw and used as places of worship. 
Some 230 of these sites were found on Maui, exhibiting a great variety of size, 
shape, and plan,—no two being exactly alike. Orientation toward the sea 
was a more important consideration than toward the cardinal points, and the 
site chosen was generally on some headland with a commanding view of the 
shore; if down in a valley the heiau was walled to provide greater privacy 
for the sacred ceremonies. The largest site found measured 425 feet long, 340 
feet wide, and had a terraced slope 50 feet high where it extended over the 
edge of the hill. This temple is attributed to a Maui chief of the 16th cen- 
tury, which is as far back as any of the ruins can be dated with any accuracy, 
although it is believed at least 500 years have elapsed since the last great 
traditional period of voyages took place from the southern Polynesian islands. 

Besides the heiau, the villages contain house platforms on which the grass 
houses were built, platforms for other small buildings, animal pens, enclosures 
for canoes, terraces for the cultivation of taro, small patches for sweet pota- 
toes, gourds, etc. At many places by the shore small platforms of rocks and 
coral known as koa, or fishermen’s shrines were found. Four of the old grass 
houses in various conditions of decay are all that remain on the island. In 
the windy sections the houses had stone walls and only the roof was of thatch. 

Other archeological features included paved stone foot trails crossing the 
wildest and rockiest parts of the lava flows, and attributed to the genius of 
a legendary hero; artificial fishponds formed by building barriers of rock 
across a narrow bay or cove; playgrounds, such as tracks prepared down 
zrassy slopes for games of sled coasting, and bowling grounds for the game of 
maika played with stone discs; and battle sites such as impregnable rocky 
headlands and steep ridges, as well as battle fields in the sandhills, ete. 
Burials of important chiefs were made in inaccessible cliffs which are only 
discovered by chance as all knowledge of them is held in the greatest secrecy. 
Common people were buried in sandhills or in some deserted gulch, which is 
still the practice in many places. 

A detailed account of the reconnaissance will be published by the Bishop 
Museum of Honolulu. 

Frank H. H. Roserts, Jr., Secretary 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


THE JosepH HENRY LECTURESHIP OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF 
W ASHINGTON 


The Philosophical Society of Washington, through its General Committee, 
has decided to establish a lectureship in honor of its first President, JOSEPH 
Henry. Such action at this time is particularly appropriate, since 1931 is 
the centenary of the discovery of electromagnetic induction, a discovery which 
has brought honor not only to Henry, but also to Faraday. The purpose and 
scope of the Lectureship can best be shown by quoting the report of the 
special committee, which was adopted by the General Committee. 


AuG. 19, 1931 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 345 


‘‘(1) There is at present in the hands of the Treasurer a cash balance 
; ., and the committee is in agreement that . . . . a portion of it 
be spent . . . . in some way which will advance the cause of science and 
reflect credit on the Society. 

(2) It is proposed that at suitable intervals of time a speaker be selected 
to address the Society on one of the broad aspects of some field of science, 
the speaker to review the recent developments or present status of a sub- 
ject included in or related to the Physical Sciences. 

(3) It is further proposed that the complete address be put in form for 
publication and submitted to the JouRNAL of the Washington Academy of 
Sciences. 

(4) It is further proposed that the aforementioned address shall be called 
the Joseph Henry Lecture in memory of the first President of the Philo- 
sophical Society. 

(5) It is further proposed that the first Joseph Henry Lecture be de- 
livered before the Society in the fall of 1931, and that thereafter the lecture 
shall be delivered annually before the Society in the spring of the year, 
starting in the spring of 1932. 

(6) It is further proposed that the expenses of the speaker incidental to 
a visit to Washington shall be borne by the Society and that in addition an 
Honorarium of one hundred dollars ($100) shall be presented to the lecturer 
at a suitable time during his visit. 

(7) The complete arrangements for any one meeting are to be made by 
a special committee of three who are to be responsible for selecting the 
speaker and securing the manuscript in form for publication. No member 
of the committee should have been a member of the immediately preceding 
similar committee.”’ 

The General committee further provided that the special committee for 
a given year shall be appointed before October 15 of the preceding year. In 
accordance with this action, the following committees have been appointed: 


1931 1932 
C. G. ABBOTT L. J. Briaes, Chairman 
L. H. Apams, Chairman J. H.'TAYtor 
R. E. Gipson F. E. WRIGHT 


A transcontinental excursion from New York or Washington to San Fran- 
cisco by airplane and return by train is being arranged for geomorphologists 
who will attend the International Geological Congress in 1933. The leader 
of the excursion will be Dr. A. K. Lopeck of Columbia University. 


Tais1A STADNICHENKO and ParKEeR D. Trask have been appointed asso- 
ciate geologists in the Geological Survey and assigned to the fuel section of 
the geologic branch. 


M. N. Sort, associate geologist of the Geological Survey, has been 
appointed professor of optical mineralogy at the University of Arizona. 


346 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 14 


Obituary 


Epwarp GoopricH AcHESON, of St. Petersburg, Fla., a member of the 
AcapDEmy, died in New York, July 6, 1931, after a brief illness. He was born 
at Washington, Pa., on March 9, 1856, and at an early age became interested 
in experimental work. He was employed in Edison’s laboratory from 1880 
to 1882 in the development of filaments for the electric lamp. About 1891 
he discovered a new chemical compound, silicon carbide, now known com- 
mercially as Carborundum, and in 1906 he devised a method of making 
colloidal graphite from it. For these and other discoveries, he was awarded 
many medals and prizes. The degree of Doctor of Science was conferred on 
him in 1909 by the University of Pittsburg. He was the founder and first 
recipient of the Acheson Medal, which is awarded by the American Electro- 
chemical Society for a distinguished contribution in electrothermics. 


FRANK WIGGLESWORTH CLARKE, a past president of the AcapEmy and for 
42 years (1883-1925) Chief Chemist of the U. 8. Geological Survey, died at 
his home in Washington May 23, aged 84 years. He was born in Boston 
March 19, 1847, and graduated from Harvard in 1867. He was professor of 
chemistry at the University of Cincinnati from 1874 to 1883 and had also 
taught at Cornell and Howard universities. Prof. Clarke was recognized as 
an international authority on atomic weights and as one of America’s leading 
chemists. He was the recipient of several honorary degrees from universities 
both in this country and abroad. Prof. Clarke was one of the first to compile 
fundamental physical and chemical constants, and for many years he was 
chairman of the international committee on atomic weights. His Data of 
geochemistry, published in five editions by the Geological Survey, is a stand- 
ard reference work. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, 
the Philosophical Society of Washington, and of many other scientific organi- 
zations, and an honorary member of the Chemical Society of London, the 
Mineralogical Society of London, the Russian Mineralogical Society, and 
the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. In 1900 he was made 
Chevalier of the Légion d’Honneur. He was president of the American Chem- 
ical Society in 1901 and of the Cosmos Club during 1917. As an honorary 
curator of minerals in the National Museum he did much to bring the collec- 
tions to their present excellence. It was largely through his effort that this 
JOURNAL was founded in 1911. 


WILLIAM JASPER SPILLMAN, agricultural economist of the Department of 
Agriculture, died in Washington July 11, 1931. He was born in Lawrence 
County, Mo., Oct. 23, 1863, and studied at the University of Missouri, from 
which he received the degrees of bachelor of science (1886), master of science 
(1889), and doctor of science (1910). He was professor of science at the Mis- 
souri State Normal School (1887-89), Vincennes University (1889-91), and 
Oregon State Normal School (1891-94), and professor of agriculture at Wash- 
ington College (1894-1901). He became an agrostologist in the U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture in 1902, and from 1905 to 1918 was agriculturist in 
charge of farm management investigations. Among Dr. Spillman’s best- 
known publications are Farm grasses of the United States, Farm science, and 
Balancing of the farm output. 


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Vou. 21 | SEPTEMBER 19, 1931 No. 15 


JOURNAY 


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JOURNAL 


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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 21- SEPTEMBER 19, 1931 No. 15 


BOTANY.—WNew plants mainly from western South America—ITI 
Exviswortu P. Kiuuip, U. 8. National Museum. 

Ten new species of plants are described in the present paper, 
and four transfers of species are made. Most of the novelties are 
in Valeriana, a highly critical genus well represented in the mountains 
of Peru. 


STENOPHYLLUS ARGENTINUS (Palla) Killip 


Bulbostylis argentina Palla, Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr. 57: 258. 1907. 

Specimens examined (U. S. National Herbarium): ARGENTINA: Cordoba, 
Stuckert (Kneucker Cyperaceae 195, type collection). Bajo de Aufama, 
Dept. Tafi, Prov. Tucumdn, 1800 meters, Venturi 3512. Cerro del Campo, 
Dept. Burreyero, Prov.. Tucumdn, 2000 meters, Venturz 7729. 


BoEHMERIA PALLIDA (Rusby) Killip 


Boehmeria diversifolia Wedd. Ann. Sci. Nat. IV. Bot. 1: 202. 1854. 
Not Boehmeria diversifolia Miq. (1851). 
Phenax pallida Rusby, Mem. Torrey Club 4: 259. 1895. 


POUZOLZIA POEPPIANA (Wedd.) Killip 


Margarocarpus poeppigianus Wedd. Ann. Sci. Nat. IV. Bot. 1: 204. 1854. 
Margarocarpus asper Wedd. Ann. Sci. Nat. IV. Bot. 1: 204. 1854. 
Boehmeria discolor Poepp.; Blume, Mus. Bot. Lugd. Bat. 2: 206. 1856. 
Boehmeria aspera Blume, Mus. Bot. Lugd. Bat. 2: 206, footnote. 1856. 
te pee eie discolor Wedd. Arch. Mus. Paris 9: 408. pl. 13, A. f. 18-24. 

Pouzolzia aspera Wedd. in DC. Prodr. 16!: 233. 1869. Not Pouzolzia 
aspera Wight (1853). 

Recent collections from Peru show that the differences relied upon by 
Weddell to separate the two species treated in his final monograph as P. 
discolor and P. aspera are not constant, and that only a single species is 
represented. ne EEN | 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. For 
proceding parts, see this JoURNAL 16: 565-573. 1926, and 19: 191-195. 1929. Received 


June 1, 1931. 
oe SEP 2. 1931 


: o- - 
wee FETT Pee) SO OW 


048 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 15 


Phthirusa triplinervis Killip, sp. nov. 


Parasitic shrub, glabrous throughout, the branches terete, very slender, 
rugulose; leaves elliptic-lanceolate, 5 to 9 em. long, 2 to 3 cm. wide, attenuate- 
acuminate at apex, acute at base (petiole 8 to 10 mm. long), triplinerved, 
verrucose-lenticulose; inflorescence paniculate, the main rachis terete, up to 
5.5 em. long, very slender, the panicle 3- or 4-branched, the branches sub- 
angular, 2 to 3 cm. long, the flowers solitary, opposite, sessile; bracts triangu- | 
lar, about 1 mm. long, acute; bractlets similar but smaller; fruit ovoid, 6 
to 7 mm. long, 4 to 5mm. in diameter. 

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, No. 1,444,051, collected at Hetuché4, 
Rio Orteguaza, Caqueta Territory, Colombia, July 24, 1926, by G. Woronow 
and 8. Juzepezuk (no. 6231). Duplicate in the Botanical Garden of the 
U.S. 8. R. Academy of Sciences. 


As this material is in fruit only, it is difficult to indicate the species’ precise 
relationship. The shape of the leaves is suggestive of P. theloneura, but in 
that species the leaves are l-nerved and the flowers are in racemes. Of the 
known species of the genus I find none described as having triplinerved leaves. 


Passiflora pilosissima Killip, sp. nov. 


Herbaceous vine, ‘‘up to 10 meters in length, profusely ramified;’’? stem 
subquinquangular, striate, the younger portions densely pilose; stipules 
narrowly linear-falcate, 3 to 4mm. long, 1 mm. wide at base, purplish, decidu- 
ous; petioles 5 to 15 mm. long, glandless, pilose, purplish; leaves ovate, 5 to 
12 em. long, 2 to 7 cm. wide, 3-lobed at apex (middle lobe triangular, acute or 
subacute, cuspidate or mucronulate, much larger than the lateral lobes which 
often are reduced to mere cusps), rounded at base, entire, 3-nerved, obscurely 
ocellate beneath, membranous, densely appressed-pilose on both surfaces; 
peduncles in pairs; bracts narrowly linear, subverticillate or one borne just 
below the two others, 5 to 6 mm. long, 0.5 mm. wide, dark purple; flowers 
(only in bud in type specimen) ‘“‘greenish white; sepals ovate-lanceolate, 
obtuse, fleshy; petals ovate, obtuse, thin- membranous; corona filaments in 
2 series, the outer linear-lanceolate, tapering gradually from base to apex, 
half as long as sepals, the inner filiform, minute; operculum closely plicate, 
denticulate; imen annular, prominent; ovary globose, densely hirsute. 

Type in the U.S. National Museum, No. 1,348,569, collected in dense 
damp forests between San Gregorio and Narifio, Department of Antioquia 
Colombia, altitude 1700 to 2100 meters, December, 1891, by F. C. Lehmann 
(No. 7630). 


In the list? of Lehmann’s Passifloraceae this collection is referred to P. 
mollis, but the nature of the indument shows at a glance that it is quite unlike 
typical forms of P. mollis. A specimen of this has recently been received 
by the U. 8. National Museum from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and 
I have thus had an opportunity of making a careful comparison with speci- 
mens of P. mollis from the type locality along the Quindio Trail. Although 
the flowers of this specimen are in bud only, the outer corona filaments are 
sufficiently developed to show an important difference between it and P. 
mollis; these filaments are linear-lanceolate, tapering from the base to the 


2 Bot. Jahrb. Engler 18: Beil. 46: 5. 1894. 


sEPT. 19, 1931 KILLIP: NEW SOUTH AMERICAN PLANTS 349 


apex, while in P. mollis they are liguliform or slightly fusiform. The leaf 
lobes of P. pilosissima are much sharper than in P. mollis, more nearly 
approximating those of P. cuspidzfolia, of the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia. 

Here probably belongs a sterile plant from La Crumbre, Department El 
Valle, Colombia (Killip 11342). The leaves are proportionately narrower, 
but are clothed with the same characteristic pubescence. 


Passiflora loretensis Killip, sp. nov. 


Herbaceous vine, essentially glabrous throughout; stem terete, striate 
stipules semi-oblong, 13 to 18 mm. long, 6 to 7 mm. wide, oblique, obtuse 
and mucronulate at apex, the midnerve slightly eccentric; petioles 1.5 to 
2 em. long, bearing 2 pairs of subulate glands, one pair near apex, the other near 
middle, the glands 1.5 mm. long; leaves lanceolate, 10 to 12 em. long, 5.5 to 
6 cm. wide, acuminate at apex, cordulate and subpeltate at base, entire, 7- 
nerved, reticulate-veined (nerves and veins strongly elevated beneath), 
coriaceous, scantily pilosulous on nerves beneath, concolorous; peduncles 1.5 
to 3.5 em. long, articulate about 5 mm. from apex; bracts cordate-ovate, 2 
to 2.5 cm. long, 1 to 1.5 cm. wide, acuminate or abruptly acute, mucronulate, 
membranous, light green, persistent; flowers about 5 cm. wide, pink (?); 
calyx tube broadly campanulate, about 6 mm. long, 10 to 15 mm. wide at 
throat; sepals oblong, 1.8 to 2 cm. long, 6 to 8 mm. wide, obtuse, cucullate 
toward apex, carinate, the keel terminating in an awn 4 to 5 mm. long; petals 
slightly shorter than sepals; corona filaments in 5 series, filiform, the 2 outer 
radiate, about 1.5 cm. long, pale pink, the inner compact, 4 mm. long, deep 
pink; operculum membranous, 5 mm. long, fimbriate to middle, deep pink; 
nectar ring a low ridge; limen tubular, 4 mm. long, closely surrounding base 
of gynophore, crenulate; ovary broadly ovoid; fruit globose, about 5 cm. 
in diameter, the exocarp coriaceous; seeds narrowly cuneate, 7 to 8 mm. long, 
2 to 3 mm. wide, coarsely reticulate. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, No. 1,470,098, collected at La 
Victoria, on the Amazon River, Department Loreto, Peru, in August or 
September, 1929, by L. Williams (No. 3086). Duplicate in Field Museum. 


This is most closely related to P. oerstediz, and though the differences seem 
slight when stated in a key, these specimens of P. loretensis appear very un- 
like any material of P. oerstedit at hand. The leaves are much thicker and 
are green on both surfaces. The bracts are larger. The plant suggests also 
P. amabilis, which I know only from description and illustrations, but the 
shape of the petiolar glands and the coloring of the flowers are different, to 
mention only a few of the distinguishing characters. 


Clavija magdalenae Killip, sp. nov. 


Erect shrub, 2 to 3 meters high, the stem 8 to 20 mm. in diameter, castane- 
ous, lepidote-punctate, suleate, puberulous at end; petioles 2 to 5 cm. long, 
castaneous, puberulous, and subgeniculate at base, pale green and glabrous 
above; leaves ovate-elliptic or obovate, 15 to 30 cm. long, 8 to 12 cm. wide, 
acute or short-acuminate at apex, cuneate at base, decurrent on petiole, 
entire or remotely denticulate toward apex, conspicuously nerved and veined 
(midnerve stout, the principal lateral nerves 12 to 15 to a side, the venation 
closely reticulate), coriaceous, glabrous, drying yellowish green or pale green 


’ 


300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 15 


above, pale green beneath; staminate inflorescence loosely racemose, 12 to 
15 cm. long, the rachis glabrous, the pedicels 2 to 3 mm. long, stout, clavate, 
recurved; flowers 5-merous; sepals united about halfway, suborbicular, 2 
mm. wide, densely ciliate, orange-red, paler at margin; corolla orange-red, 
about 10 mm. wide, lobed about three-quarters of distance to base, the lobes 
ovate-spatulate, about 5 mm. wide, rounded, entire; staminodes 5, distinct, 
episepalous, 1 mm. long, flat; stamens united into a stout tube, barely 1 mm. 
long; pistillate inflorescence much reduced, the rachis (in fruit) up to 5 cm 
long; corolla orange-red, about 12 mm. wide, lobed nearly to base, minutely 
crenulate; stamens distinct, the filaments stout, 1 mm. long, the anthers 
sterile; ovary conical; fruit depressed-globose, 1.5 cm. long, 2 cm. in diameter, 
orange-yellow. 

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, Nos. 1,433,004 (staminate) and 
1,433,005 (pistillate), collected at Pioj6, near Barranquilla, Department 
Atlantico, Colombia, altitude 400 meters, January, 1929, by Brother Elias 
(No. 684). The description of the fruit is based upon a specimen collected at 
Estrella, Lands of Loba, Department Bolivar, Colombia, by H. M. Curran 
(No. 323). Local names for the plant are huevo de morocot and membrillo. 


On the basis of the flat staminodes this species comes nearest C. tarapotana 
in Mez’ key. However, in shape and texture of the leaves the two are quite 
unlike. 


Clavija reflexiflora Killip, sp. nov. 


Shrub or small tree, 1 to 3 (extremes up to 6) meters high, the trunk simple, 
erect, leafy only at summit, castaneous, finely rufo-tomentose, at length 
glabrous; leaves elliptic-oblong, 15 to 35 cm. long, 6 to 12 cm. wide, broadest 
just above the middle, acute or acuminate at apex, tapering to a petiole 4 
to 7 cm. long (petiole castaneous, finely rufo-tomentose and geniculate at 
base, glabrous, sulcate above), entire, subcoriaceous, thicker at margin, 
glabrous, bright green when dry, lustrous, sparingly lepidote-punctate be- 
neath, prominently nerved and veined, the midnerve coarse, the primary 
lateral nerves anastomosing 3 to 5 mm. from margin, the venation closely 
reticulate; inflorescence racemose, 7 to 8 cm. long, the rachis glabrous, the 
pedicels strongly reflexed, 3 to 4 mm. long, slender, glabrous; bracts triangu- 
lar, 1 to 1.2 mm. long, minutely puberulous, persistent; flowers (only stami- 
nate seen) 4- or 5-merous; sepals united about halfway, ovate-orbicular, 1 
to 1.2 mm. wide, rounded, glabrous, minutely ciliate, pale at margin; corolla 
coalescent nearly to middle, 6 to 8 mm. wide, orange-red or orange-yellow, 
the lobes obovate, 2 to 3 mm. long, 1.7 to 2 mm. wide, minutely crenulate; 
staminodes 5, distinct, episepalous, claviform, about 1 mm. in diameter, 
fleshy ; staminal tube 1 mm. long, thick; fruit globose, 1.5 to 2 cm. in diameter, 
glabrous, orange-yellow or bright yellow. 

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, No. 1,462,724, collected in dense 
forest at San Antonio, on Rio Itaya, Department Loreto, Peru, altitude about 
110 meters, September 18, 1929, by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (No. 29345). 

Additional specimens examined, all from the Department of Loreto, Peru: 
Mishuyacu, near Iquitos, Klug 219, 1320. Yurimaguas, Killip & Smith 
27674 (in fruit). Between Yurimaguas and Balsapuerto, Killip & Smith 
28112. Along Rio Marafién between mouths of Ric Pastaza and Rio Hual- 
laga, Killip & Smith 29191, 29203. Puerto Arturo, Killip & Smith 27916. 


SEPT. 19, 1931 KILLIP: NEW SOUTH AMERICAN PLANTS ool 


Clavija reflexiflora comes nearest C. lanczfolia in the key in Mez’ Mono- 
graph of Theophrastaceae, though the plant appears to be most closely related 
to C. parviflora. Clavija lancifolia has proportionately narrower leaves and 
smaller staminate flowers; C. parviflora has shorter petioles, erect pedicels, 
smaller flowers, and the staminodes are globose rather than claviform. The 
proposed species resembles also C. poeppigiz, of which Mr. Smith and I 
collected several specimens in this general region, but the under surface of the 
leaves and the inflorescence of that plant are pilose, and the leaves are, on 
the average, much larger. 

Funastrum ovalifolium (Rusby) Killip 


Philibertella ovalifolia Rusby, Deser. 8. Amer. Pl. 94. 1920. 

Specimens examined: CoLomBIA: MAGDALENA: Mamateca, H. H. Smith 
1683 (U. S. Nat. Herb., type coll.). About 9 kilometers south of Santa 
Marta, Killip & Smith 21105 (U.S. Nat. Herb.). 


Valeriana oligodonta Killip, sp. nov. 


Erect herb, about 30 cm. high, from a thickened root, essentially glabrous; 
basal leaves long-petioled (petioles 7 to 8 cm. long), simple, unlobed, ovate, 
4.5 to 7 em. long, 3 to 4 cm. wide, rounded at apex, abruptly narrowed, or 
tapering gradually to petiole, entire or undulate in upper half, irregularly 
crenate-dentate in lower, minutely ciliolate, obscurely flabellate-nerved, 
thin-membranous when dry; cauline leaves one pair, lanceolate, 2.5 to 4 cm. 
long, 1 to 1.5 em. wide, tapering to an obtuse apex, subsessile, irregularly 
serrate or shallowly lobed toward base; flowers borne in dense globose heads 
about 1 em. wide, their peduncles stout, those at the lower node about 2 cm. 
long, those at the upper node up to 1 cm. long or the heads subsessile; bracts 
linear, subentire, minutely ciliolate; bractlets linear-spatulate, 2 to 2.5 mm. 
long, rounded at apex; corolla tube funnel-shaped, 1.5 to 2 mm. long, the 
limb 4- or 5-lobed, 3 to 4 mm. wide. 

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, No. 
580434, collected on the hills of the Saxaihuamdn, Department Cuzco, Peru, 
altitude 3,500 to 3,600 meters, November 20, 1928, by F. L. Herrera (No. 
2190). 


This differs from V. herrerae, to which it seems to be most closely allied, 
in having a more compact inflorescence, the corolla being fully three times 
larger, with a deeper lobation. ‘The leaves are much larger, and differently 
shaped. 


Valeriana maxima Killip, sp. nov. 


Coarse herb, 1.5 to 2.5 meters high, glabrous throughout except for a slight 
indument on the bracts; stem terete, up to 1 em. thick, striate; basal leaves 
unlobed, ovate-elliptic, 8 to 10 cm. long, 3 to 4 em. wide, acuminate, their 
petioles 7 to 10 cm. long; cauline leaves pinnatifid nearly to rachis (hence 
the rachis narrowly winged), up to 10 em. long, sessile or the lower with stout 
petioles about 3 cm. long and connate at base, the lateral segments 1 to 3 pairs, 
oblong or ovate-oblong, 1 to 3.5 em. long, 0.8 to 2 em. wide, obtuse or sub- 
acute, entire or undulate, the terminal segment ovate, 7 to 10 cm. long, 3 to 
3.5 em. wide, acuminate; panicle diffuse, up to 75 cm. long, 25 cm. wide, the 
primary and secondary branches opposite, ultimately dichotomous; bracts 
triangular, 2 to 3 mm. long, pilosulous; bractlets linear, 1 to 1.5 mm. long; 


352 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 15 


corolla funnel-shaped, 1.5 to 2 mm. long, pure white; achenes lance-oblong, 
2 mm. long, 3-nerved on one face, 1-nerved or other, pappose, the pappus 
tawny. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, Nos. 1,358,589-591, collected at 
Huacapistana, Department Junin, Peru, altitude 1,800 meters, June 5, 1929, 
by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (No. 24105). 


This belongs to the group of Valeriana represented in Peru by V.macbridez, 
V. bambusicaulis, and V. warburgit. From these it differs in the cauline 
leaves being merely deeply pinnatifid, with a winged rachis, rather than 
pinnately compound. It resembles somewhat V. dzpsacordes, also collected 
by Mr. Smith and myself (no. 24171) at Huacapistana, the type locality of 
the species, but in that plant the cauline leaves are unlobed. 


Valeriana asplenifolia Killip, sp. nov. 


Cespitose herb, glabrous except at the nodes of the inflorescence, the root- 
stock elongate, thick, branched toward apex; leaves mainly basal, forming a 
rosette, linear-lanceolate in general outline, 5 to 15 cm. long (including a 
petiole about half their length), 0.5 to 1.5 em. wide, pinnate, or pinnatifid 
toward apex, the leaflets 10 to 15 pairs, opposite or subopposite, ovate or 
lance-ovate, the lowermost up to 9 mm. long, 5 mm. wide, regularly crenate- 
serrate with 4 or 5 teeth to a side, obtuse, sessile and subdecurrent on rachis, 
the lower remote, the upper approximate and even imbricate; cauline leaves 
a single pair at base of inflorescence, much reduced, 5 to 7 mm. long, up to 2 
mm. wide, pinnatifid at least toward base, sessile; stem up to 25 cm. high, 
the inflorescence racemose-paniculate, the flowers densely massed at the ends 
of short branchlets in subglobose heads up to 1 cm. wide; bractlets linear- 
oblong, 2.5 to 3 mm. long, 1 to 1.5 mm. wide, obtuse, dark green at center, 
pale at margin; corolla funnel-shaped, the tube 2.5 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide 
at throat, white, the lobes linear, 1 mm. long, obtuse, greenish white; achenes 
narrowly lance-oblong, about 1 mm. long, dark brown, inconspicuously 
nerved, pappose, the pappus 10-rayed, brownish white. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, No. 1,357,123, collected in shade 
of rocks of puna on Mount La Juntay, near Huancayo, Department Junin, 
Peru, altitude 4,700 meters, April 27, 1929, by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith 
(No. 22051). 


From V. thalictroides, which it resembles in general appearance, this species | 
is distinguished by the more prominent and more regular toothing of the 
leaves, much reduced cauline leaves, shorter bractlets, and narrower corolla 


lobes. The foliage greatly resembles the fronds of ferns in the group of 
Asplenium lunulatum. 


Valeriana rufescens Killip, sp. nov. 


Cespitose herb, rufo-tomentellous nearly throughout, drying black; root- 
stock woody, 5 to 7 mm. thick, branched toward apex; leaves mainly basal, 
forming a rosette, narrowly lanceolate in general outline, 8 to 10 cm. long 
(including petiole 2 to 4 em. long), 1.5 to 2 em. wide, pinnate in lower half 
(leaflets oblong or oblong-spatulate, up to 1 cm. long, 0.5 em. wide, obtuse, 
irregularly serrate with 2 or 3 serrations to a side, sessile), pinnatifid in 


SEPT. 19, 1931 KILLIP: NEW SOUTH AMERICAN PLANTS 300° 


upper half, the upper surface of the leaves densely rufo-tomentellous, the 
lower surface rufo-tomentellous on veins, otherwise glabrous; cauline leaves 
two pairs, pinnatifid, similar in texture and indument to the basal leaves, 
the lower pair short-petioled, the upper pair sessile; stem up to 20 em. high; 
inflorescence racemose-paniculate, 7 to 8 em. long, 2 to 2.5 em. wide, the 
flowers borne in subglobose heads on short (up to 8 mm.) branches; bracts 
broadly spatulate, 3 to 4 mm. long, 2 to 2.56 mm. wide, truncate, obsoletely 
crenulate; achenes oblong, trigonous, about 1.5mm. long, pappose, the pappus 
8-rayed. 

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, No. 1,470,033, collected at Munna, 
Huallaga (Valley?), Peru, altitude 3,800 to 3,900 meters, by A. Weberbauer 
(No. 6786). 


Like the preceding, this is related to V. thalictrozdes; from both of these it 
differs in being clothed nearly throughout with a dense reddish-brown indu- 
ment. The leaves are not wholly pinnate, asin V. thalictrozdes, nor are the 
divisions regularly crenate-serrulate, asin V. asplenzfolva. 


Valeriana agrimonifolia Killip, sp. nov. 


Slender herb, up to 65 em. high, glabrous throughout, except fruit; stem 
reddish brown, terete; leaves all pinnate, the basal and lower ones 6 to 9 cm. 
long (including petiole about 1.5 cm.), the uppermost about 2.5 em. long, the 
leaflets coarsely and regularly crenate-serrate, membranous, the lateral 
ovate, 7 to 15 mm. long, 5 to 7 mm. wide, sessile or subsessile, the terminal 
leaflet ovate or obovate, slightly larger, short-petiolulate; inflorescence race- 
mose-paniculate, 40 to 45 cm. long, about 12 cm. wide (unusually regular for 
the genus), the primary and secondary branches opposite, the latter two or 
three times dichotomous, the flowers congested at the ends of the ultimate 
branches; bracts narrowly linear, about 4 mm. long; bractlets linear-spatulate, 
about 3 mm. long, green, purplish at tips; corolla tube narrowly funnel-shaped, 
0.5 mm. long, cream-white, the lobes orbicular; achenes ovate, 1 to 1.5 mm. 
long, subfalcate, 3-nerved on one side, 1-nerved on other, pilosulous, pappose, 
the pappus 8-rayed, light green, purplish at base. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, No. 1,357,035, collected at Tarma, 
Department Junin, Peru, altitude 3,100 meters, April 22, 1929, by E. P. Killip 
and A. C. Smith (No. 21933). 


This probably is nearest V. warburgiz, but it differs in the size and toothing 
of the leaflets and the congested grouping of the flowers at the ends of the 
branches of the inflorescence. 


304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 15 


HERPETOLOGY.—A new hzard (Anolis pinchoti) from Old Provi- 
dence Island. Doris M. Cocuran, U. 8. National Museum. 
(Communicated by C. WyTHE CooKE.)! 


In 1929 the United States National Museum received from Mr. 
Gifford Pinchot an exceedingly valuable collection of natural history 
specimens collected on various tropical islands touched at by the 
Pinchot South Sea Expedition. Among the preserved material was 
a pair of lizards from Old Providence, an island in the Caribbean 
Sea belonging to Colombia, which represent a species new to science. 
I take pleasure in dedicating the new species to the donor. 


Anolis pinchoti new species. 


Diagnosis.—Tail subcylindrical; dorsal scales keeled, considerably larger 
than those on the flanks; gular and ventral scales keeled; digital expansion 
strongly developed; occipital scale larger than ear-opening, separated from 
supra-orbital semicircles by two or three rows of scales; the semicircles 
separated from each other by one or two scales; median snout scales smooth 
or very faintly rugose, those nearing the canthus with slight irregular keels; 
enlarged supraoculars faintly keeled; anterior half of superciliary ridge with 
two elongate scales, the first the longest; one or two series of somewhat irregu- 
larly enlarged scales paralleling the infralabials below, and separated from 
them by two rows of smaller scales; tibia measuring more than four-fifths 
the distance from end of snout to posterior border of ear-opening; the ad- 
pressed hind limb reaching beyond the eye. 

Description of the type-—U.S. N. M., No. 76945, an adult male from Old 
Providence Island, Colombia, collected on April 23, 1929 by Dr. A. K. Fisher. 
Head one and three-fourths as long as broad, longer than the tibia; forehead 
slightly concave; frontal ridges nearly obsolete; upper head-scales medium in 
size, the inner ones practically smooth, those nearing the canthus faintly 
rugose; scales of supraorbital semicircles conspicuously enlarged, separated by 
two scales; supraocular disk composed of three large inner scales and four or 
five smaller outer scales, each with a single low keel, the inner ones separated 
from the supraorbital semicircles by one row of granular scales, the outer 
separated from the superciliaries by from one to three rows; occipital shield 
nearly round, larger than the ear-opening, separated from the semicircles by 
two or three rows of scales; canthus rostralis quite distinct, composed of five 
or six keeled scales, the anterior small, the fifth the longest, the sixth continu- 
ing backward in line with the two keeled superciliaries, the first of which is 
quite long; posterior half of the superciliary ridge granular; a series of enlarged, 
keeled suboculars, not reaching the lip, but in contact with several of the 
supralabials; about four rows of more or less rugose loreal scales; eight keeled 
lower labials to below center of eye; ear-opening moderate, vertically oval; 
dewlap moderate with a thickened edge of densely set, coarse scales, those on 
sides of appendage elongate, relatively large and set in regular rows; gular 
scales small, elongate, keeled; median dorsal scales keeled, somewhat smaller 


1 Received June 20, 1981. Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smith- 
sonian Institution. 


sEPT. 19, 1931 COCHRAN: ANOLIS PINCHOTI 300 


than the ventrals but distinctly larger than those on the flanks, the three 
median dorsal rows rather abruptly larger than the remaining dorsals, which 
are likewise keeled; no dorsal crest in evidence; a low nuchal crest; ventral 
scales moderate in size, imbricate, distinctly keeled like all the scales of the 
underside; scales on anterior surfaces of limbs somewhat larger than ventrals, 
keeled; tail sub-cylindrical, not verticilate, its lateral scales keeled, about the 
size of the ventrals, the median row above and the three or four median rows 
below being considerably enlarged and keeled; body compressed; adpressed 
hind limb reaching beyond the eye; a pair of greatly enlarged post-anals 
present. 

Dimensions.—Snout to vent, 44 mm.; snout to posterior border of ear, 13 
mm.; head width, 7.5 mm.; tibia, 11 mm.; fore leg, 20 mm.; hind leg, 36 mm.; 
tail reproduced. 

Color (in aleohol).—Back and sides drab; limbs, snout, tail and under parts 
light russet brown; a few indistinct dark dots on the sides, and some dusky, 
ill-defined bands on the limbs and tail; a large sepia patch across the occiput; 
skin and scales of gular fan pale fawn color. 

Variation.—In comparison with the type, the only paratype, a female, 
U. 8S. N. M. No. 76946, from the same place, has the scales on the snout 
slightly more rugose. The occipital plate is somewhat smaller and conse- 
quently the ear appears much larger. A dark median dorsal stripe bordered 
by two narrow light dorso-lateral stripes appears in the female, while the 
cross-banding of the limbs is more accentuated. In the scalation of the loreal 
and supraocular regions, the two specimens are practically identical. The 
female is 7 mm. shorter than the male. Both unfortunately have lost their 
original tails. 


The new species is obviously related most closely to Anolis stigmosus from 
Taboga Island, Panama, as identified by Dunn.? The style of body and tail 
scalation is much alike in both species and the head plates are similar in 
arrangement. ‘The most striking difference is in the snout, which is relatively 
much longer in pinchotz than in stigmosus. The former likewise has a shorter 
tibia and slightly larger head- and body-scales. The color pattern of the 
head supplies another difference, for the dark patch of pinchoti is placed 
relatively farther forward on the occiput and is broader and rather ill-defined 
in outline, while the small dark spot found in most specimens of stigmosus is 
very distinct and placed farther backward on the nape. 

In April, 1884, the United States Fish Commission Steamer Albatross 
secured one Anolis on Old Providence. This specimen is now completely 
macerated, but it probably belonged to the species described above. 


2H. R. Dunn. Notes on Central American Anolis. Proc. New England Zool. Club 
12: 17. Aug. 7, 1930. 


356 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 15 


ZOOLOGY.—Chondronema passali (Leidy, 1852) n.g. (Nematoda), 
with notes on rts life history. J. R. Curistre and B. G. Currwoop, 
Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated by N. A. Coss.) 


Joseph Leidy (1852) found, near Carlisle, Pa., large numbers of 
larval nemas inhabiting the body-cavity of adults of the very common 
and widespread beetle, Passalus cornutus (family Lucanidae). Leidy 
suspected that the adult of this nema occurs as a parasite of some 
other animal, the beetles acting only as secondary host. He endeav- 
ored to rear adult nemas by feeding infested beetles to frogs (Rana 
pipiens) but failed. Since Leidy’s discovery, this parasite must have 
come to the attention of many entomologists; but his seems to be the 
only published record. 

We have studied several hundred adult specimens of Passalus cor- 
nutus from Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, Illinois 
and Louisiana, and found nearly all of them infested. (Leidy reports 
90 per cent). Of the relatively few grubs examined, one-fifth were 
infested. ‘The nema was also found in the pupae, but too few were 
examined to determine the proportion infested. Most adult beetles 
harbor the parasites in large numbers (estimated at from 500 to 1000) 
and always in various stages of development, from very young to 
full grown individuals. Although the oldest larvae in the body-cavity 
are not sexually mature, they do not increase in size after leaving the 
host. Infested beetle grubs and pupae appear to harbor fewer para- 
sites. ; 

Passalus cornutus occurs in decaying wood, usually in galleries in 
partly decayed stumps and logs, and its eggs are evidently laid in 
these galleries, for here the young grubs develop and pupate. 

We thought it very improbable that this nema, in its adult stage, 
is a parasite of any vertebrate, for even if a vertebrate were able to 
find and eat the beetles, or otherwise become infested, the possibility 
of the eggs or larvae of the parasite getting back into the galleries of 
the beetle and bringing about such a widespread pronounced infesta- 
tion seems very remote. Furthermore the nema bears little resem- 
-blance to any known parasite of vertebrates. We therefore concluded 
that the entire life cycle probably takes place in or near the beetle 
galleries and that the adult nemas live free in the moist, decayed wood 
or frass; and, after many hours of tedious searching of such material, 
we finally discovered the adult nema. 


1 Received May 30, 1931. Published by permission of the Chief of the Bureau of 
Plant Industry. 


SEPT. 19,1931 CHRISTIE AND CHITWOOD: CHONDRONEMA PASSALI 300 


This nema seems most closely related to Allantonema, Bradynema, 
Howardula, Tylenchinema and their relatives. The large, lateral 
pores on the tail remind one of similar structures possessed by cer- 
tain parasites of earthworms, a matter which will be alluded to later. 
However, we do not deem it advisable to assign this species to any 
existing genus, and therefore propose the new genus Chondronema for it. 


Chondronema new genus 


Head with four well marked papillae. Dorsal esophageal gland (intestinal 
gland or Schlunddriise of some other authors) present. Amphidial openings 
lateral, slightly nearer mouth than papillae; amphidial glands large. Esopha- 
gus without bulb-like swelling. A pair (one right, one left) of large lateral 
pores (Phasmids?) on the tail. Male with slight bursa; two spicules, without 
gubernaculum. Testis reflexed. Vulva functionless unless used in copula- 
tion. Body of female degenerating into nearly structureless sack filled with 
developing embryos. Body-cavity parasites throughout larval development, 
but free-living throughout adult stage. 

Type species—Chondronema passali (Leidy 1852). 


Sphaerularia and Atractonema are at once differentiated by the presence 
of a prolapsed uterus. Chondronema is further differentiated from all other 
apparently related genera by the fact that the vulva, if it functions at all, 
serves only for the purpose of copulation, later becoming vestigial. It never 
serves for the extrusion of eggs or larvae. The larvae remain parasitic until 
full grown, and the adults remain free-living. 


Chondronema passali (Leidy, 1852) 


Body-cavity larvae: Head papillae in form of distinct elevations. Mouth 
minute, spear slender, 2u long, without basal swelling. Amphidial openings 
small, amphidial glands nearly filling body in head region. Lateral caudal 
pores large, conspicuous, with distinct ducts. Anus distinct. Tail with 
short caudal projection. 

Male: Head papillae not in form of distinct elevations. Spear degenerate 
or lacking. Amphidial openings distinct, amphidial glands with brownish 
pigment. Excretory pore and renette cell obscure. Lateral caudal pores 
present. Spicules nearly straight, 50u long; bursa inconspicuous, in front 
of anus. 

Female: Body retaining original shape but degenerating into nearly struc- 
tureless sack, filled, first with ova, later with motile larvae. Traces of mouth 
and anus sometimes visible. Vulva becoming vestigial. 


MORPHOLOGY 


Larvae from uterus of female. These larvae have a length of 0.2 mm. and a 
body diameter of 12u. The slender spear, 2u long appears to have two minute 
thickenings. The anterior end of the esophagus is faintly differentiated. 
The region of the body later to be occupied by the intestine is indicated by a 
somewhat coarser and darker granulation. 


pe nee 


358 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21 Noy V5 


0.05 mm 


Figs. 1-8. 1, Youngest body-cavity larva, lateral view. 2, Head of adult male, 
lateral view. 3, Gonad of young female larva. 4, Gonad of larva .87 mm. long, prob- 
ably amale. 5, Ova from body of mother nema. 6, Gonad from female larva 1.45 mm. 
long (somewhat older than in fig. 3). 7, Tail end of adult male, lateral view. 8, Gonad 
from male larva 3.2 mm. long. 


a, dark spots in dorso-ventral plane opposite anterior end of spear; amph, amphids; 
amph gl, ammphidial gland; an, anus; b, crescent-shaped element crossing spear in dorso- 
ventral plane; brs, bursa; cdl pr, caudal projection; ex cl, excretory or rennette cell; int, 
intestine; jct, junction of esophageal tube with duct from esophageal gland; Irv, larvae 
in body of mother nema; dum oe, lumen of esophagus, (esophageal tube); nrv 7, nerve 
ring; oe, esophagus; oe gl, esophageal gland; or, mouth; ov, ova; ovr, ovary; p ex, excre- 
tory pore; cdl por, caudal pore; ppl, papillae; sp, spear; tes, testis. 


. 


ee 


SEPT. 19,1931 CHRISTIE AND CHITWOOD: CHONDRONEMA PASSALI 309 


Figs.9-17. 9, Tail end of last stage body-cavity female larva, lateral view. 10, Asin 


fig. 9, ventral view. 11, Posterior end adult female containing eggs, lateral view. 12, 


Same female as in fig. 11, anterior end, lateral view. 13, Posterior end adult female 
containing motile larvae, lateral view. 14, Head of male, body-cavity larva 1.1 mm. 
long, lateral view. 15, Last stage, body-cavity female larva, lateral view. 16, Last 
stage, body-cavity, female larva end view of head. 17, As in fig. 16, dorsal view of 
anterior end. 


360 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 15. 


hl aoe, Qike sso oe 

2.9 Bo. HOLOMt Olas 3.0 
The minute mouth is located on a distinct elevation. The slender spear is 
about 2u long. About one third the distance from the point to the base of 
the spear, it is crossed by a darkened, crescent-shaped structure, lying in a 
dorso-ventral plane, with the convex side anteriad, and each arm ending in 
a slight enlargement. This structure (fig. 14), together with the spear, gives 
the appearance of a miniature anchor. The esophagus, whose contour can 
be faintly seen, is nearly cylindrical, and has a diameter of about 6 to 7u; 
it is constricted at the nerve ring. On the dorsal side of the body, back of the 
nerve ring and between it and the anterior end of the intestine (fig. 1), is a 
large, finely granular, unicellular body with a large nucleus, the esophageal 
gland (intestinal gland of Goodey 1930, and Schlunddriise of Wilker 1923). 
An esophageal lumen, 1 to 1.5u in diameter with a cuticularized wall, extends 
from the pharyngeal region to the intestine. The renette cell, 32u long by 
6u in maximum diameter and possessing a nucleus, lies on the ventral side 
of the body with its anterior end opposite the excretory pore, at the base of 
the esophagus. The tail endihas the form shown in fig. 1. On each side of 
the tail, about half way to the end is a relatively very large pore. These 
pores are similar to those found in last-stage larvae and will be described 
later. The genital primordium is located at about the middle of the body 
(fig. 1). The sexes at this stage of development were not distinguished. 

0:26 4:36 7 5/67) Juve Os 
Le 2A A567 4586 2.6 


Youngest body-cavity larvae. 0.38 mm. 


Last-stage body-cavity larvae. 


0293.87 4:0. Juve", 2:05 hat 
(SSS Gs me 2105 3.3 mm. The males are easily distin- 


3.9 mm. 


guished, being considerably more transparent than the females. _ In addition 
there is a difference in the developing gonads. In both sexes the body is 
nearly cylindrical, tapering slightly and gradually at the extremities. The 
head is nearly truncate and the mouth is not elevated as in very young larvae. 
Crossing the spear in a dorso-ventral plane is the crescent-shaped element as | 
described for the younger stage. Slightly in front of this crescent-shaped 
structure and also in a dorso-ventral plane may be seen two dark spots, one 
on either side of the spear (fig. 14). Around the mouth, on the outer-anterior 
margin of the head are four large papillae placed about equidistant from one 
another. The openings of the amphids are slightly nearer the mouth than 
the papillae and quite small. They are circular or possibly slightly ellipsoidal. 
Internally each amphidial tube leads to a large gland (fig. 17). The esopha- 
gus has an average diameter of from 15 to 20u, and is nearly cylindrical. It 
appears to be non muscular, is without bulb-like swellings, and is traversed 
throughout by a lumen with a diameter of from 1.5 to 2u and a heavily 
cuticularized wall. At the point where this esophageal tube enters the 
intestine there is a slight constriction followed by a small enlargement, a 


SEPT. 19,1931 CHRISTIE AND CHITWOOD: CHONDRONEMA PASSALI 361 


character observed in larvae of all ages (fig. 15). The dorsal, esophageal 
gland is usually somewhat flattened against the anterior end of the intestine. 
From this gland a duct leads forward on the dorsal side of the body and 
empties into the esophageal tube near the base of the pharynx. The junction 
of the duct with the esophageal tube is easily seen, but its course posteriad 
is more difficult to follow (fig. 14). 

The well developed intestine is granular in appearance and possesses a 
lumen filled with a homogeneous and apparently more or less gelatinous sub- 
stance. The anus is a distinct opening leading into a short rectum. It 
probably does not function in extruding fecal material. When specimens 
are placed under pressure a droplet of a semi-gelatinous substance is some- 
times extruded through the anus. ‘The tail (figure 9) is terminated by a small 
projection about 3 to 4u long. Located on the sides, about half way from 
the anus to the tip of the tail, are the lateral, caudal pores, nearly a micron 
in diameter and surrounded by slightly protruding lips. A distinct duct 
leads inward, passing through a somewhat light-colored area 10 to 15. in 
diameter (figs. 9 & 10). This does not appear to be a gland nor could any 
glands be definitely associated with these structures. One is reminded of 
similiar organs on the tail of Dicelzs filaria (Dujardin and Ungella secta Cobb, 
both parasites of earthworms. In the case of the former species, as figured 
by Wilker (1926) the resemblance is especially marked. 

Many of the body-cavity larvae are characterized by having the body 
divided into what appears, under low magnification, to be long segments. 
These pseudosegments vary in number and length and in many cases are 
restricted to the anterior half of the body. They are formed by the darker 
periphery of the intestine or the tissue underlying the body wall, extending 
inward and constricting the clearer, inner portion of the intestine. This 
condition seems to have disappeared in the oldest body-cavity larvae, nor is 
it always present in the younger stages. 

Development of the gonads. In the youngest parasitic larva secured (fig. 1) 
the genital primordium was composed of a large, anterior, terminal cell and 
three slightly smaller posterior cells, each with a large nucleus. What is 
evidently an anterior cap cell (as described by Wiilker, 1923, for Allantonema 
mirable) was present although the corresponding posterior cap cell was not 
observed. The sexes were not distinguished at this stage. 

A slightly later stage of development is shown in figure 4, as found in a 
larva 0.87 mm. in length taken from a P. cornutus grub. It is composed of 
a large anterior terminal cell and a group of about 10 or 12 smaller posterior 
cells. A large, elongated cell occurs in front of what is designated above as 
the anterior terminal cell. It is also present in older stages of both sexes 
(figs. 3 and 6) and somewhat resembles a similiarly placed cell in the larva 
of Tylenchinema oscinellae which Goodey believes to be the primordium of 
what he calls the intestinal gland. In the present case, however, the 
esophageal gland is already formed. 


362 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 15 


In a larva 3.2 mm. long the male gonad has progressed to the stage shown 
in figure 8. It is composed of a large, anterior, terminal cell, a long, cylin- 
drical mass of small polyhedral cells of more or less uniform size, and five 
large posterior terminal cells with large nuclei, the last mentioned presumably 
destined to form the vas deferens. 

The gonad of the adult male (fig. 7) is markedly shorter than the develop- 
ing gonad in a larva 3.2mm. long. Wilker (1923) noted a similiar shortening 
of the testis of Allantonema mirable. He points out that as the maturing of 
the spermatozoa begins at the posterior end of the organ and progresses 
anteriad, the mature spermatozoa occupy less space than the cells from which 
they are formed, resulting in a shortening of the organ. 

A fairly young stage of the female genital primordium is shown in figure 3- 
It consists of an anterior terminal cell, a large, multinucleated ovarian cell 
and about three to five posterior cells. A further development of the female 
genital primordium, from a specimen 1.45 mm. long, is shown in figure 6. 

Adult female. All adult females obtained for study were filled, from one 
end to the other, with developing ova or, in older ones, motile larvae. The 
shape of the body remains about the same as that of the oldest body-cavity 
larvae. (See p. 360). Faint traces of the mouth and anus could sometimes 
be seen and in one case a rudimentary vulva 115y in front of the anus. All 
other internal structures were obliterated. The body is covered with small 
cuticular bosses, irregularly placed and somewhat more numerous in the 
head region. 

OD SO © PO ININ G4: 

Adult male. 1st specimen Te Sod 86 noo 2.0 mm. 
eon OMe UNI HO 
2nd specimen 4-49 57 36 2.4 mm. | 

The mouth is small and without differentiated lips and the spear appears to 
be lacking. The amphidial glands, with brown pigment, cover the anterior 
end of the esophagus back for a distance of about 40u. The posterior part 
of the esophagus is twisted and the esophageal gland is apparently degenerat-_ 
ing. For the shape of the tail see figure 7. The nearly straight, equal, 
rather slender spicules, 50u long, taper slightly throughout to sharp points. 
The testis extends forward about 0.3 mm. and the blind end ‘is reflexed for 
about 0.15 mm. The small thin, transparent bursa is entirely in front of 
the anus. Caudal pores are present in essentially the same form as in the 
parasitic larvae, although perhaps not quite so conspicuous. The caudal 
projection has disappeared and in its place there is a small, rounded and 
slightly elevated scar. 


LIFE HISTORY 


The parasites enter the host as very young larvae. The method 
of entering is not known. It seems unlikely that such immature lar- 


sEPT. 19,1931 CHRISTIE AND CHITWOOD: CHONDRONEMA PASSALI 363 


vae, possessing a small and apparently ineffective spear, are able to 
penetrate the hard exoskeleton of adult beetles. That beetles are 
being continually infected is indicated by the fact that very young 
parasites are present regardless of the age of the beetles or the time 
of the year when they are collected. It seems to us more probable 
that the larval parasites are taken per os while the beetles are feeding. 
The exceedingly heavy infestations encountered suggests the possi- 
bility that the mother nemas with their entire progeny may be swal- 
lowed. The young larvae moult once while still in the body of the 
mother nema and another moult probably takes place soon after 
emergence from the host. 

Experiments to discover the as yet unknown method of exit from 
the host by keeping beetles in confinement were inconclusive, but 
it was at least demonstrated that during the time of the experiments 
larvae were not escaping from the beetles in any considerable numbers. 
Whenever beetles were killed and placed in cultures of moist, decayed 
wood, all the body-cavity parasites died, which seems to render the 
possibility of the parasites being liberated through the death of the 
host as unlikely. The oldest of the body-cavity larvae were on many 
occasions removed from the beetles and placed in moist, decayed wood 
and various other types of cultures, but they always died, although in 
one instance such a larva was kept alive for ten days, at the end of 
which time the indication of an approaching moult seemed evident. 

Wilker (1923) when studying Allantonema mirable found that the 
larvae entered the intestine of the beetle from the body cavity and 
were passed out with the feces. When larvae were taken directly 
from the body cavity of the host to cultures they often lived for a 
considerable period but did not develop to sexual maturity. He 
concluded that the sojourn in the intestine of the host is necessary in 
preparing the larvae for a free-living existance. Fuchs (1929), work- 
ing with Parasitylenchus contortus, var. typographi, appears to have 
been more successful in rearing body-cavity larvae to maturity in 
cultures, and takes issue with Wilker on this point. Fuchs believes 
that failure was due to the fact that the larvae selected had not re- 
mained in the host long enough. 

Wiilker also points out that in the cases of Allantonema, Bradynema 
and Parasitylenchus, where the method of exit from the host has been 
studied, it takes place only at the time when the host insects are 
sexually active, i.e. egg-laying time. This is true for Howardula 
benigna Cobb, 1926 and apparently also for Tylenchinema oscinellae. 
Failure to secure free-living stages of Chondronema passali in cages 


364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 15 


where the beetles were confined may have been due to the fact that 
the beetles were not sexually active at the time. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Cobb, N. A. Howardula benigna; a parasite of the cucumber-beetle. Contributions 
to a science of Nematology X., pp. 345-352, 8 figs. 1928. 

Fuchs, Gilbert. Nachschrift zu Wilkers Bemerkungén. Zeitsch. f. Parasit., Abt. F, 
2 (2): 291-293. 1929. 

Goodey, T. On a remarkable new nematode, Tylenchinema oscinellae gen. et. sp. n., 
parasitic in the frit-fly, Oscinella frit L., attacking oats. Phil. Tr. Roy. Soe. 
London, 218 (series B): 315-3438, p. 22-26. 1930. 

Leidy, Joseph. Some observations on Nematoidea imperfecta, and descriptions of 
three parasitic Infusoriae. Tr. Am. Phil. Soc., Phila., n.s.10 (2): 241-244, pl. 
11, fig. 42-51. 1852. 

Wiilker, Gerhard. Uber Fortpflanzung und Entwicklung von Allantonema und ver- 
wandten Nematoden. Ergebnisse und Fortschritte Zool. 5 (Hefte 4): 389-507, 
53 figs. 1923. 

— Uber geschlechtsreife Nematoden im Regenwurm. Archiv. f. Schiffs-u. Tro- _ 
penhygiene 30: 610-623, fig. 1926. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Indianites, new name for the Cambrian crusta- 
cean Indiana Ulrich and Bassler1| E. O. Ulrich and R. S. Bass- 
ler. 


Recently we published a work entitled Cambrian bivalved crustacea 
of the Order Conchostraca,? in which we endeavored to retain as many 
of the previously described genera and species of these interesting 
Cambrian fossils as possible by redescription and illustration. In 
emending the genus Indiana Matthew, 1902, we selected a new geno- 
type in place of the one that had been cited because the latter, which 
was inadequately described and figured, was found after careful 
preparation and study to be a good species of Bradoria. The other 
species referred to Indiana by Matthew proved to belong to a well. 
defined generic group, and so in order to preserve Matthew’s name we 
selected one of these, Indiana lippa, as its genotype and also proposed 
the new family Indianidae with Indiana based upon this selected 
species as its type genus. Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell, whose keen in- 
terest in nomenclatural questions as well as other branches of biology 
is well known, has called our attention to the fact that in spite of our 
good intentions we are violating the rules of nomenclature and sug- 
gested that we correct. this error. Therefore, we now propose the 
new name Jndianites as a substitute for Indiana Ulrich and Bassler, 
1931, and the new family Indianitidae in place of the one previously 
named Indianidae. 


1 Received July 22, 1931. 
2 Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. vol. 78, no. 2847, art 4, pp. 1-130, pls. 1-10, 1931. 


smpr. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 365 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


474TH MEETING 


The 474th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 25, 1931, 
President MEINzER presiding. 

Informal communications: W. P. Wooprine displayed by lantern slides 
two aeroplane views disclosing presumed earthquake cracks in the vicinity 
of the Elk Hills, San Joaquin Valley, California. The cracks, now nearly 
obliterated, are marked by trenches 1 to 2 feet deep and a few feet wide which 
cross drains and divides alike. They are presumably secondary earth cracks 
of the type described by Lawson as shatter cracks caused by the intense 
vibration. 

Discussed by Messrs. Hess and GILLULY. 

JOSIAH BRIDGE summarized recent studies of a fossil fauna from the Ellen- 
burger limestone of central Texas, and correlated the faunal horizons with 
the stratigraphic sequence of the Ozark region and of Wisconsin. The 
studies show that the Ellenburger fauna includes species from both eastern 
and western sources. 

Program: Pururr B. Kine: Geology of the Marathon District, Texas.—The 
Marathon uplift, lying immediately east of the Cordilleran ranges in western 
Texas, is a Cenozoic dome from which the Cretaceous cover has been stripped. 
The center of the dome reveals Paleozoic rocks that possess an Appalachian 
type of structure. Erosion of the Paleozoic rocks under arid conditions has 
etched out the weaker strata into broad flats and has left some layers of 
novaculite and other resistant beds standing out in sharp ridges as a skeleton 
of the ancient structure. The lowlands of Paleozoic strata are surrounded by 
escarpments in which limestones of Permian and Comanche age crop out. 

The Paleozoic rocks total 22,000 feet in thickness, and are subdivided 
as follows: 


Feet 
Permian series Dolomite, limestone, shale, and much con- 
glomerate, divided into six formations... 7,500 
Pennsylvanian series Gaptank formation (conglomerate, limestone, 
(Possibly including Sandsvone, anGdesiale pean eek ek 1,800 
some Mississippian Haymond formation (sandstone and _ shale, 
in lower part) with a boulder bed in upper part)....... 2,500 
Dimple formation (limestone and shale)..... 700 
Tesnus formation (sandstone and shale) .. 500-7 ,000 
Devonian (?) system Caballos novaculite (including bedded chert).. 400 
Ordovician system Mianavillasccliert: =. semeret eres a. eee 300 
Wiooudspalollow, sale (ite sere metres a es. 500 
Fort Pena formation (limestone, chert, and 
COMTIOMETALC yee eee. 150 
NTisaice shales ioe ee ant aay tA peste ns 50 
Marathonlimestones ss sens o, 800 
Cambrian system Wazcer Hat sandstome. ss os4 422. 5. . exposed, 250 


During the Paleozoic era the Marathon region was subject to intermittent 
crustal unrest and—as in the post-Paleozoic Coast Ranges of California— 
deposition and uplift went on simultaneously in adjacent areas, peculiar con- 
glomerates which indicate a complex tectonic history were deposited, and a 
relatively great thickness of siliceous rocks was deposited. Later orogeny 


366 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 15 


was prepared for as early as Cambrian and Ordovician time by the formation 
of a geosyncline in the Marathon region. The first great uplift in the area, 
approximately correlative to the Taconic movements farther east, occurred 
between Middle and Upper Ordovician time, when boulder beds containing 
rocks as old as Cambrian were formed. The lower part of the Carboniferous 
system consists of a monotonous alternation of sandstone and shale and re- 
sembles the Flysch of the Alps and Carpathians. In the upper part of this 
‘“‘Flysch series” is a boulder bed that contains great exotic blocks and masses 
of fault breccia, which bear witness to the first strong diastrophism. The 
exotic blocks are probably contemporaneous with a system of folded over- 
thrusts exposed in the southeastern part of the district. The succeeding 
Gaptank formation consists of marine shales and limestones, interbedded with 
conglomerates which indicate another epoch of folding. These beds are 
similar to the Alpine Molasse. The Gaptank formation is itself deformed, and 
in the northwest part of the district is cut by a flat overthrust fault, not folded, 
on which there has been a displacement of more than 5 miles. The faulted 
Gaptank formation is overlain unconformably by Permian marine strata. 
These Permian rocks were laid down after the climax of the orogenic epoch, 
yet were deformed slightly at least three times before the Cretaceous period. 
When the Cretaceous seas advanced, the region had been worn down to a 
peneplain, indicating a period of crustal quiesence in early Mesozoic time. 
(Author’s abstract). ? 

Discussed by Messrs. Miser, Huss, and G. R. MANSFIELD. 

W. W. Rosey: The Illinois River, a problem in channel equilibrium.— 
Throughout its lower 250 miles the Illinois River exhibits many abnormal 
characteristics and its regimen differs greatly from that of nearby portions of 
the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. The slope or gradient is less than 2 
inches to the mile,—somewhat less than the slope of the Mississippi from 
Memphis, Tenn., to the Gulf. This flat slope is not the result of a meander- 
ing round-about stream course. In fact, the Illinois follows a more direct 
route than the other streams of the region and the thalweg, or line of deepest 
water, has the almost unique characteristic of flowing close against the inside, 
not the outside, of the few curves. The flat slope probably explains the 
sluggish current and the fineness of the silt that is carried. The Illinois is also 
a much narrower and somewhat deeper stream than the Mississippi or Mis- 
souri, but the most surprising characteristic of the river is the stability of the 
present channel. Despite the great range between flood and low-water 
volumes, the Illinois does not shift its course perceptibly. Undercut banks 
are uncommon, there are very few abandoned meanders on the flood plain, 
and the remarkable similarity between early maps and channel measurements 
and those made recently all show that the channel is essentially adjusted or 
graded to present conditions. 

These peculiar features have not been caused by recent artificial modifica- 
tions of the river for they were all noted by the earliest travellers in the region. 
Nor are these peculiarities due simply to an inheritance by the present stream 
of a channel built by some ancient river. The Illinois has had a long and 
complex geologic history but the present river flows entirely within a wide 
flood plain made of its own deposits and distinctly younger than the Late 
Wisconsin terrace. However, it is significant that the bed-rock floor beneath 
the alluvial deposits, although more than 100 feet below the flood plain and 
so beyond the reach of present-day scouring, appears from scattered borings 
to have the same flat gradient as the present river. 

The essential equilibrium between the present channel of the river and 
the conditions of load, size of grain, volume, etc., cannot be explained solely 


sEPT. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 367 


in terms of the familiar concept of graded stream slopes. The concept of 
adjusted channel cross sections, as pointed out by G. K. Gilbert and by canal 
engineers, is also essential. Alluvial streams tend to establish channels that 
are neither too deep nor too shallow. Semicircular cross sections oppose the 
least possible rubbing surface per unit area and hence give the maximum efh- 
ciency of channel; but natural streams, flowing in crooked channels between 
erodible banks, are unable to maintain so narrow a cross section. The ad- 
justed cross sections actually established are the deepest ones that the streams 
are able to maintain. 

Combining the two concepts, adjusted cross sections and graded slopes, 
the general conditions of dynamic stream equilibrium may be stated somewhat 
as follows: An underloaded stream tends to erode and an overloaded stream 
to deposit, either at the sides or the bottom of the channel. Erosion increases 
and deposition decreases the load. Erosion on the bottom lowers the slope 
and so decreases the velocity whereas deposition on the bottom has the oppo- 
site effect. Erosion at the sides widens the cross section and so reduces the 
efficiency of the channel whereas deposition at the sides has the opposite effect. 
Erosion, whether at the sides or on the bottom, increases the load and de- 
creases the velocity, and deposition in either place decreases the load and 
increases the velocity. These changes continue until an approximate balance 

s struck between load and capacity. 

The conditions of dynamic equilibrium may be summarized in an approxi- 
L°D* 

a where Sq = graded slope, 


= adjusted cross section or proportionate depth, L = quantity 


mate but convenient equation:—Sé4 X, » 


A 


of load transported, D = mean diameter of sediment transported, Q = dis- 
charge or volume of water, and a, b, c, and d are exponential constants. This 
approximate equation rests not only upon theoretical analysis but it can be 
derived from Gilbert’s general empirical formula of the transportation of 
débris by running water and it is supported by many other empirical 
relationships. 

The concept of adjusted cross sections seems to afford a basis for the rational 
interpretation of the peculiar regimen of the Illinois River. If slope and 
proportionate depth are adjusted to load jointly and not separately, then an 
over-steepened slope may be compensated by a relatively wide cross section 
and an over-flattened slope by a relatively narrow cross section. Perhaps 
the Platte River in Nebraska is an examp'e of the first type and the Illinois 
River of the second. By this interpretation the flat bed-rock floor was cut 
by some much larger Pleistocene river and subsequent aggradation in the 
Mississippi River has caused the present Illinois to build up a flood plain 
roughly parallel to this inherited bed-rock floor. In so doing, essential equi- 
librium has been maintained, despite the extreme flatness, by the greater 
proportionate depth of the present stream (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. MENDENHALL, MEINZER, and ALDEN. 

N. H. Heck, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey: Some recent developments 1n 
the field of setsmology.—A broad view of the recent progress in seismological 
investigation was given. The annual earthquake activity of the United 
States and all the principal activity from the earliest times were shown by 
slides, and the new seismological stations and their relation to the various 
earthquake regions were demonstrated. New stations equipped with modern 
instruments are now being established at many places. Three types of instru- 
ments developed in the United States were described and their purposes 


068 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 15 


discussed. ‘These are the Wood-Anderson torsion seismometer, chiefly for 
near earthquakes; the Wenner seismometer, using galvanometzic registration 
for precise recording of all distant earthquakes, and the McComb-Romberg 
tilt-compensation seismometer, which is particularly suited to the earthquake 
at a moderate distance and which by means of an oil coupling eliminates the 
effect of tilt on the records. 

The special triangulation and level.ng work in California was briefly 
described and also the determination of tiJt in regions subject to strong 
earthquakes which has been the subject of an investigation in Japan with 
promising results in connection with the possible prediction of the approxi- 
mate time of severe earthquakes. The codperative nature of the work and 
the duty of the geologists to make use of the precise data obtained was 
stressed. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Mr. LouGHLIN. 


475TH MEETING 


The 475th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 11, 1931, President 
MEINZER presiding. 

Informal communications: F. L. Hpss exhibited a radiograph showing the 
relative radioactivity of minerals in a specimen from Haliburton, Ontario. 
A certain purple fluorite was found to be most radioactive, uraninite less 
active, and apatite least active. Mr. Hess also discussed the paragenesis 
of the radioactive minerals, which partly replace the calcite filling of vugs 
in a pegmatite. The radiograph was made by covering a sensitive plate with 
colorless celluloid about 0.01 inch thick, placing thereon a polished section of 
the radioactive material, and leaving the section in contact for 24 hours. 

G. R. MANSFIELD summarized the history of test drilling in search cf potas- 
sium salts in the Permian basin of New Mexico and Texas. In the past five 
years at least 45 test holes have been put down by core drills; 20 holes have 
been drilled by the U. 8. Geological Survey and the U. 8. Bureau of Mines in 
cooperation, and 25 or more by commercial enterprise. One of the com- 
mercial organizations, the United States Potash Co., has sunk a shaft more 
than 1,000 feet deep, has drifted along beds of potassium salts, and has 
advertised its readiness to deliver ore containing 15 or 20 per cent K,O on 
February 15. The principal potassium minerais disclosed by this shaft are 
sylvite (Cl) and earnallite (KC], MgChk, 6H20). Other minerals discovered 
by the core drill are polyhalite (2CaSO., MgSOu., K:SO., 2H:,O) and lang- 
beinite (K,SO., 2MgS0O.), both of which promise to become commercial 
sources of potassium in the United States. Specimens of these minerals 
were exhibited. 

Discussed by Mr. PARKER. 

L. W. STEPHENSON showed by lantern slides a small duplex overturned fold 
in a limestone bed in the lower part of the Eagle Ford shale in Uvalde County, 
Texas. The folded portion of the limestone member was 2 inches thick; its 
maximum thickness elsewhere was 5inches. The original length of the folded 
portion was 123 feet; its shortened length was 43 feet. The folded limestone 
is enclosed in shale that is underlain by undisturbed Buda limestone. 

Discussed by Messrs. ATwoop, GoLpMAN, Rusny, and BRADLEY. 

Program: C. E. Van Orstranp: Results of some recent geothermal surveys 
in the United States. 

Discussed by Messrs. R. C. Weis, Mernzer, and RuBEY. 

C. E. Tinney, Cambridge University: Structure and metamorphism of the 
southern Highlands of Scotland. 


SEPT. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 369 


476TH MEETING 


The 476th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 25, 1931, President 
MEINZER presiding. 

Informal communications: KE. T. McKnieut exhibited a specimen of ore 
from the Governor Eagle mine, 10 miles northwest of Yellville, Arkansas, 
that contained enargite as an accessory ore mineral. ‘This is the first dis- 
covery of enargite in any of the Mississippi Valley ore deposits. 

Discussed by Mr. LouGHLuIn. 

C. E. Resser showed an undescribed crustacean discovered by an amateur 
collector in the Middle Cambrian of the House Range, near Delaware, Utah. 
The crustacean is a primitive form ancestral to the eurypterids and not 
a trilobite. 

Program: C. P. Ross: The phystography of south-central Idaho.—Most of 
south-central Idaho was exposed to subaerial erosion from the close of the 
Paleozoic to the Oligocene or later. By the beginning of the Tertiary a pene- 
plain had been formed, but this was uplifted and youthfully dissected prior to 
being covered by the Challis volcanics. The summit peneplain or partial 
peneplain generally recognized in the present topography is in part cut across 
the Challis voleanics (Oligocene or Miocene). Part of the confusion as to the 
dating of this peneplain is removed by the discovery that the so-called “lake 
beds” are integral parts of the Challis voleanics and not restricted, as had 
been supposed, to certain valleys. 

The remnants of the summit peneplain in the northwestern part of south- 
central Idaho are more extensive and flatter than farther east, where the 
original topography was more rugged. They correlate with similar summit 
areas in the Clearwater Mountains regarded by several geologists as older 
than the Columbia River basalt of that district. 

Subsequent to the post-Challis peneplanation, the drainage pattern has 
been complicated by superposition and differential tilting with consequent 
piracy. The main tilting was toward the northwest. The Salmon River is 
made up of parts of several pre-existing streams. Itis impossible from present 
data to reconstruct the drainage pattern existing at any particular time in the 
Tertiary, partly because of the uncertainty as to the origin of the elongate 
ranges and their bordering valleys in the southeast part of the region. So far 
as present data go these may quite as well be products of erosion guided by 
ancient structures as the products of block faulting of the Basin Range type 
as some have regarded them. 

The numerous basins, which are mainly on the headwaters of the larger 
streams, are regarded as the products of an incomplete erosion cycle. There 
seems no reason to regard most of them as results of faulting, as has been 
postulated. 

Erosion in northern Idaho since the eruption of the ‘‘Columbia River 
basalt” (which there is regarded as Upper Miocene) has been interpreted as 
mainly confined to valley cutting with little lateral planation. This difference 
with the history of neighboring regions may result from retardation of erosion 
through subsidence related to the basaltic eruptions. 

In south-central Idaho there was glaciation in Nebraskan (?) and Wisconsin 
time and canyons more than 1,000 feet deep were cut in the interval between 
glaciations. One to four terraces in different places record pauses in this 
cutting. Locally the Snake River basalt, probably in the Pleistocene, 
dammed streams issuing from south-central Idaho onto the Snake River 
Plain. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. AtTwoop and Matruss. 


370 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 15 


G. F. Loueuuin: Geology of Leadville and vicinity, a review of old and recent 
studies.—This paper was a review of the main features of the geology and ore 
deposits of the Leadville district and vicinity as expressed in U. S. Geol. 
Survey Prof. Paper 148 and in more recent papers, published and unpub- 
lished, by Kirk, Behre, and Singewald. The outstanding changes in stra- 
tigraphy that have resulted from recent work are (1) the correlation of the 
Ordovician ‘“‘White”’ limestone with the Manitou rather than the Yule forma- 
tion, and (2) the recognition of the ‘‘Parting’”’ quartzite and the lower 75 
feet of the Leadville or “Blue” limestone as Devonian, approximately equiva- 
lent to the Ouray limestone. New work on structural problems adds detailed 
information that confirms the conclusions set forth in Prof. Paper 148. The 
mineral composition and structural relations of ore deposits in the outlying 
areas indicate that they were formed by solutions derived from the main, or 
Breece Hill, source of the Leadville ores rather than from local sources. 
(Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. Hess, HEwntt and FERGUSON 


477TH MEETING 


The 477th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, April 8, 1931, President 
MEINZER presiding. 

Informal communications: FRANK LEVERETT, of the University of Michigan 
and the U. S. Geological Survey, summarized his study of the Pensacola 
terrace or shore Jine in the eastern Gulf coastal States in the past two years. 
He pointed out that the altitude of the Pensacola shore line is more than 40 
feet above sea level on the east coast of Florida, as shown by the Interlachen 
topographic quadrangle, near Jacksonville; also that its altitude is above 33 
‘feet at Tampa Bay on the west coast of Florida, above 22 feet on the east 
side of Mobile Bay near Fairhope, Alabama, and above 13 to 15 feet along 
the west side of Lake Pontchartrain, Louisiana. These altitudes show that 
the Pensacola shore line declines toward the west, that is, toward the delta 
of the Mississippi River. Leverett referred to the hypothesis that the tilting 
is due to yielding of the crust under the load of the delta and pointed out—as 
direct evidence of subsidence—that undoubted erosion forms in the head of 
small creeks near Baton Rouge are now in coastal swamps. He also recalled 
that a former shore line about Cuba is reported to decline toward the west 
and that the difference that may exist between the slope of shore lines on Cuba 
and on the mainland would indicate the magnitude of the subsidence due to 
delta load. The Pensacola beach is relatively very young. 

Discussed by Messrs. Mrrnzer, Hiss, RuBry, and WoopRING. 

Program: J. C. Rep and JAMES GILLULY: Heavy mineral assemblages 
an some plutonic rocks from eastern Oregon.—Plutonic igneous rocks constitute 
a large proportion of the pre-Tertiary terrane of the Blue Mountains of north- 
eastern Oregon. Gabbro, hornblende-quartz diorite, biotite-quartz diorite, 
trondhjemite, and albite granite are abundant. ‘The biotite-quartz diorite 
is notably less sheared than the other plutonic rocks and may belong to a 
later igneous cycle. On the other hand, it may belong to the same cycle as 
the other rocks and may be more massive because it was intruded near the 
close of the orogenic activity. Accordingly the correlation of the plutonic 
rocks is of major importance in the study of the regional geology. 

The heavy residues of nineteen samples of plutonic rocks were examined 
by a method similar to that used by A. W. Groves for correlating some of the 
rocks of the Channel Islands. 


sEPT. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY oll 


The study has shown that the biotite-quartz diorite contains a suite of 
heavy minerals that is quite as diagnostic as the essential minerals. How- 
ever, the heavy mineral suites of the more basic rocks are less trustworthy as 
a basis for classification, but if a number of slides of the heavy residue are 
studied it is generally possible to classify the rock. The fact that the distinc- 
tion between the several suites is less definite than in the case of the biotite- 
quartz diorite may strengthen the field hypothesis of consanguinity of the 
gabbro, hornblende diorite, trondhjemite, and albite granite. 

The fact that apatite is less abundant in the gabbro than in the diorite 
may mean that apatite does not always crystallize first, or that—because its 
crystals are usually small—the apatite is carried away from the larger sepa- 
rated crystals of augite and plagioclase by movements of the rest-magma. 

The zircon and apatite crystals cf the hornblende-quartz diorite and trondh- 
jemite commonly appear to be corroded. This fact gives some reason to 
question the commonly accepted idea that these minerals, because they are 
among the first to crystallize, are stable throughout the later magmatic 
history. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. Hess and GILLULY. 

A. M. Piprr: Observations in the Dalles region, Oregon, bearing on the history 
of the Columbia River.—The oldest erosion form of the Dalles region was 
originally a featureless plain where it was cut across the weak Dalles formation 
but was an undulating plain where it was cut across anticlines of the resistant 
Yakima basalt. Its existing remnants include Mount Hood Flat and other . 
extensive interstream tracts that are about 2,000 feet above sea Jevel 3 miles 
south of The Dalles and that rise southwestward about 50 feet in a mile. 
This surface is correlated tentatively with the Ochoco erosion surface of 
central Oregon, that Buwalda ascribes to the early or middle Pliocene. 

The Columbia River has cut down 2,000 feet below Mount Hood Flat in 
several partial erosion cycles of which the latest three formed intracanyon 
terraces along the river and its tributary creeks. These are designated the 
300-foot terrace, the 150-foot terrace, and the 50-foot terrace, from their 
respective altitudes at The Dalles. 

The 300-foot terrace is cut on bedrock in the middle and upper reaches of 
the tributary canyons, but in the lower reaches is in part constructed of older 
alluvium. It includes two prominent wind gaps that cross the divide between 
Fifteenmile Creek and the river. The existing remnants of the terrace rise 
upstream 25 to 50 feet in a mile along the river and 50 to 100 feet in a mile 
along the tributaries. The older alluvium is fine-grained where it rests on 
the Dalles formation, but consists of coarse sand, gravel and boulders where 
it rests on the basalt. It is believed that much of this alluvium was trans- 
ported only a short distance from its source and that it was transported by 
and deposited in streams of moderate velocity. The older alluvium is 10 to 
150 feet thick in the tributary canyons and thickens rapidly downstream, 
for it fills bedrock trenches that slope more steeply than the terrace and that 
follow the existing canyons. The older alluvium is tentatively correlated 
with the Sangamon stage of the Pleistocene. 

_ The 150-foot terrace is a bench from a quarter of a mile to nearly a mile 
wide cut on the basaJt along the south bank of the river near The Dalles. It 
forms discontinuous benches on one or both valley walls in the lowermost 1 
to 3 miles of the tributaries but farther upstream forms the valley floors. 

The 50-foot plain comprises the bottom land of the river but is not devel- 
oped in the tributary valleys. 


372 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 15 


Two modes of origin of the terraces suggest themselves. The first is the 
usual! valley-within-valley sequence—that is, (1) a 300-foot plain was first cut 
on rock; (2) the streams then cut down to altitude 150 feet; and (3) the inner 
trench was filled by alluvium up to the 300-foot plain. The alternative se- 
quence is: (1) the streams first cut down to altitude 150 feet along their 
present courses; (2) this trench was filled up to or somewhat above an altitude 
of 300 feet; and (3) the streams planed laterally on both fill and bedrock to 
form the 300-foot terrace and the two wind gaps. From the pattern of the 
tributary streams in relation to the course of the river and te the two wind 
gaps it is postulated that the second sequence is the more likely. The later 
stages of the two modes of origin are the same, namely: most of the older 
alluvium was swept from the inner rock trenches, the 150-foot plain was cut 
by lateral planation, and finally the river cut down its valley to altitude 50 feet. 

Bretz classifies certain deposits of the older alluvium in the lower part 
of Fifteenmile Creek as bars composed of long deltaic foresets built in virtu- 
ally their present form by the Columbia River when it overflowed the two 
wind gaps during the hypothetical ‘Spokane flood.”” However, forset bedding 
seems generally to exist only within true beds less than 10 feet thick, even 
though the gravel is 150 feet thick. Moreover, patches of gravel occur on 
both walls of the valley and approximately up to the same altitude throughout 
the lower reaches of the tributaries. ‘ 

It seems unnecessary to resort to a cataclysm such as the ‘“‘Spokane flood”’ 
to account for any of the land forms of the Dalles region. Rather, those forms 
may be explained rationally as the product of several partial cycles of stream 
erosion. (Author’s abstract). 

Discussed by Messrs. Spars, PARKER, and GILLULY. 

R. C. Wetus: Van’t Hoff’s studies of minerals deposited from sea water.— 
Attention was called to solubility determinations made by van’t Hoff and 
his students showing the effect of one salt on the solubility of another salt, 
to the conditions necessary to obtain recrystallization of double salts, to the 
graphic representation of the composition of solutions of reciprocal salt pairs 
in equilibrium with different solid phases, and to the solid phases formed from 
solutions containing chlorides and sulphates of sodium, magnesium, and 
calcium at 25° and 83°C. The minerals that might separate on simple evapora- 
tion of sea water are aragonite, gypsum, anhydrite, halite, polyhalite, epsom- 
ite, kainite, kieserite, and carnallite. Rising temperature causes the separa- 
tion of water from several of these minerals and the possible formation of 
langbeinite and sylvite. Sylvite may also be formed by the solution of 
carnallite and other double salts and subsequent evaporation or cooling of 
such solutions. Thus the potash minerals found in New Mexico are probably 
the result of cycles of deposition and in part the result of subsequent altera- 
tion. (Author’s abstract.) 

C. H. Danze, ArtHUR M. PipEr, Secretaries 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY 


230TH MEETING 


The 230th regular meeting was held on Tuesday evening, January 6, 1931, 
in the Conference room of the Administration Building of the Department of 
Agriculture, 102 members and guests being present. President N. HE. 
STEVENS presided. 


sEPT. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 313 


The following were unanimously elected to membership: Dr. JuLius 
Matz, D. F. Fisopr, Paut V. Moox and Dr. FrRep J. STEVENSON. 

Program: Dr. E. F. Gatnus, cerealist at the Washington State College, 
gave an interesting account of his trip to England, Scotland, Denmark, 
Sweden and Germany. Although primarily interested in cereal breeding and 
diseases, Dr. Gaines did not confine his ta!k to that line, but happily mixed 
the more general topic of botany with personal experiences and impressions 
ebtained in visiting the various botanical and agricultural institutions. 

The second half of the program was devoted to reports by several members 
of the Society who had attended the meetings at Cleveland. Dr. CHarLEs 
Brooks reported on the phytopathological meetings, dwelling especially upon 
the DeBary program. He also gave some interesting side lights on the 
tobacco meetings. Mrs. ANNIE GRAVATT gave a summary of the papers 
presented on the Dutch Elm disease. Dr. E. V. Mruer reported on the physio- 
logical meetings, giving a brief resumé of the papers presented before that 
section. Dr. F. J. STEVENSON reported on the potato meetings, especially on 
the paper of Krantz on inbreeding of potatoes. 

Brief Notes and Reviews: Dr. Martin reviewed the recent book on plant 
physiological chemistry by R. B. Harvey, the only book of its kind in English. 
Dr. Norton cited the present trend of botany as exemplified by the current 
program of the meeting of the Maryland State Agriculturists. Twenty-five 
years ago the meetings were largely taken up by plant pathology and entom- 
ology, whereas now only one session was devoted to those topics. 

After adjournment, a social hour was enjoyed with “unemployed apples.”’ 


231ST MEETING 


The 231st regular meeting was held on Tuesday evening, February 3, 1931, 
in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club. President N. E. Stevens presided; 
attendance about 150. 

Program: H. 8. Dean and Freeman Wetss: Informal report on the Nar- 
cissus and bulb conference.—Mr. Dean reviewed the history of the quarantine , 
and what it aimed to accomplish. Mr. Weiss gave his impressions of the 
conference, which seemed to indicate that there was a mutual desire for 
protection from the eelworm. 

Dr. R. F. Griaas: Five thousand miles for a liverwort—Dr. Griggs de- 
scribed his 1930 expedition to the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, illustrating 
his talk with excellently colored lantern slides. A motion picture taken on a 
previous trip was shown and this was followed by the one taken last summer. 
He reported that the valley is not the inferno it was ten years ago, but has 
cooled off to a great extent. The Liverwort alone seems able to establish 
itself upon the ash. Its source of nitrogen has not been determined, although 
Dr. Griggs is of the opinion that it may obtain 1t from the air. When the 
liverwort has built up sufficient organic matter on the surface of the ash, 
mosses and higher plants appear. In closing he expressed the hope that this 
great national park might be increased in size to offer better protection to 
the animals which have come back into the region. 

In adjourning the meeting, President Stevens called attention to the list 
of food materials taken on the expedition by Dr. Griggs. This was followed 
by a social hour with refreshments prepared by the students of Dr. Griggs 
under the leadership of Miss Nance. 


374 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 15 


232ND MEETING . 


The 232nd regular meeting was held on March 3, 1931, in the Court of the 
Administration Building of the Department of Agriculture. President 
STEVENS presided; attendance about 200. 

The following were unanimously elected to membership: CHArues B. Reap, 
Dr. RoLanp W. Brown, Dr. Paut L. Harpine, M. H. Hauser, Miss Anice 
M. ANDERSON, and Miss MiLtpRED PLADECK. 

Preliminary announcements were made regarding the outing of the Appa- 
lachian Trail Club in the Great Smoky Mountains in June and also regarding 
the conference on soil fertility at State College, Pennsylvania, in June. 

Program: Paut W. Bowman: Pollen and peat—The method of examining 
peat for pollen grains was described and the occurrence of various pollen 
grains in peat was illustrated by lantern-slide graphs. The paper was dis- 
cussed by Dr. Waite and Mr. Bowman. 

Brief Notes and Reviews: Dr. SHEAR called attention to six volumes con- 
taining original drawings and notes on fungi by James Bolton which are now 
in the Library. These were purchased from a dealer in Switzerland and are 
in a good state of preservation. Dr. Waits exhibited apple branches which 
had been injured by summer sun scald and compared them with the injury 
due to winter sun scald. 

Program: R. Kent Beattie: Botanical notes from Japan.—Mr. Beattie 
traced the origin of the Japanese people, described the character of the country 
and told of his experiences in collecting seeds and scions of chestnuts for im- 
portation to this country. Between 90 and 100 varieties of chestnuts are 
named in Japan as our fruits are named. In a certain part of the country, 
three crops of nuts are raised each year. The lecture was fully illustrated 
with lantern slides. The paper was discussed by Dr. Hitcucock. | 

An exhibit of azaleas, a part of eighty named varieties brought back by Mr. 
Beattie, was arranged in each side of the patio. 

The Japanese refreshments of rice, a meat concoction and tea which fol- 
lowed adjournment were commented upon by Dr. MILLER. 


ANNUAL DINNER 


A buffet dinner was served in the Court of the Administration Building 
of the Department of Agriculture, on March 24, 1931, at 7 P.M. At- 
tendance 170. 

After the dinner, President N. E. Stevens introduced H. L. Westover who 
gave an illustrated travelogue on Spain and Portugal where he was searching 
for varieties of alfalfa. 

Kk. A. Ryerson followed with a travelogue on Spain and particularly on 
Northern Africa, where he and Mr. Westover were looking for new varieties 
of fruits and alfalfa. 

The travelogues were followed by dancing in the Conference Room. 


233RD MEETING 


The 233rd regular meeting was held in the Court of the Administration 
Building of the Department of Agriculture on April 7, 1931, Vice-president 
L. H. Furnt presided. Forty-one members and guests were present. 

Dr. VINNIE A. PEASE was unanimously elected to membership. 

Brief Notes and Reviews: Dr. WatTE explained by graphs and figures that 
the lateness of the vegetation this spring was due to the low daily maxima of 
temperature. Only on one day during March did the temperature exceed 


SEPT. 19, 1931 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 370 


60°F. The average for the month was about normal, due to rather high 
daily minima. 

Program: E. 8. Scuuttz: Virus diseases of potatoes—He discussed and 
illustrated by lantern slides the various symptoms produced by virus infection. 

F. J. STEVENSON: Genetics in relation to potato breeding.—He brought out 
the difficulties which beset the breeder of potatoes, the progress made, and 
what it was hoped to accomplish. 

W. M. Peacock demonstrated a simple method for determining the pres- 
ence of reducing sugars in potatoes, which had been developed in cooperation 
with chemists. 

An exhibit of potato chips made from potatoes having various percentages 
of reducing sugars was explained by Miss Fuuuer. 

After adjournment, refreshments of potato salad and orangeade were 
served. 


234TH MEETING 


The 234th regular meeting was called to order in the Dining Hall of the 
University of Maryland by President N. E. Stevens at 8 P.M., Wednesday, 
May 6, 1931. Ninety-six members and guests were present. 

Prior to the regular meeting, seme of the members visited the new buildings 
on the campus, and the remainder botanized in Cat-tail Hill bog where the 
rare climbing fern (Lygodiwm) was seen. Dinner was served at 7 P.M. 

The following were unanimously elected to membership: Miss FRANCES 
MarGareET Mitpurn, Mrs. Ciara JAMIESON WELD, Miss Jessig M. ALLEN, 
Mr. Y. L. Kenc and Mr. W. A. McCussin. 

Brief Notes and Reviews: Dr. Norton exhibited a book for amateur botan- 
ists by J. E. Harned of Oakland, Maryland, entitled, Wzld flowers of the Al- 
leghenies, and published by the author. Dr. WarrTe recalled a lecture before 
the Society by Dr. McKay on broken tulips and exhibited specimens taken 
from his own collection. 

The meeting then adjourned to the auditorium of the University where 
the regular program was begun. Attendance in the auditorium was about 140. 

Program: F. L. Gow: Glimpses of agriculture in southern Spain 
(illustrated). 

Dr. J. HENDERSON-SmMITH, in charge of virus diseases of plants, Rothamsted 
Experiment Station: Cytological studies of mosaic of tobacco—The lecture 
was illustrated by lantern slides and by a film in which the formation of cell 
inclusions was followed in the living undisturbed cell. The evidence indicates 
that the cell inclusions are not living but are aggregates of smaller particles 
which have coalesced. These aggregates, which are protein in nature, finally 
become vacuoled and crystallize. 

NaTHAN R. Situ, Recording Secretary. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


According to Industrial and Engineering Chemistry plans have been drawn 
and approved for a headquarters building for American pharmacy to be 
erected in Washington near the building of the National Academy of Sciences. 
About $817,000 has been collected or pledged for the undertaking, and actual 
construction is only awaiting completion of plans by the Federal Govern- 
ment for the development of that part of the city. The building will provide 
a permanent repository for historical material bearing on the profession of 
pharmacy as well as a library and facilities for research. It will also contain 


3/6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 15 


offices for the various activities of the American Pharmaceutical Association. 
An effort will be made to endow the building to the extent of one million 
dollars. It is expected that construction of the building will be completed by 
the close of 1932. 


The Divisions of Mineral and Mechanical Technology of the National 
Museum have been consolidated into a new division with the title Division 
of Engineering and including three sections, as follows: Section of Mechanical 
Technology, under the immediate supervision of Frank A. TAYLOR, assistant 
curator; Section of Aeronautics, PauL E. GaRBsr, assistant curator; and 
Section of Mineral Technology, which continues under the immediate charge 
of Cart W. Mirman, who has been appointed curator of the new division. 


Foster H. Bensamin, who has been engaged for the past three years in 
work on the Mexican orange worms and the Mediterranean fruit fly for the 
Plant Quarantine and Control Administration, has been transferred to the 
Bureau of Entomology and assigned to a position in the National Museum 
where he will devote a large part of his time to the identification of North 
American Lepidoptera. 


A. 8. Hircucock, senior agrostologist, Bureau of Plant Industry, and 
custodian of grasses, National Museum, has been elected a corresponding 
member of the Deutsche Botanische Gesellschaft. 


Raymonp C. SHANNON, who worked on Diptera in the National Museum 
some years ago and has since been continuing with mosquito work in Brazil 
under the International Health Board, returned to Washington August 3 
and will remain in the United States about six months. He will devote most 
of this time to the study of mosquitoes. 


ALAN STONE has been appointed to the staff of the Bureau of Entomology 
as a specialist on mosquitoes and will take charge of the collection of mosqui- 
toes in the National Museum. 


@Obituary 


ArtHurR M. Farrineton died August 3 in Washington, D. C. He was 
born at Brewer, Maine in 1856, and practically his entire career was with the 
Bureau of Animal Husbandry. After serving as chief of various divisions he 
was appointed to the position of Assistant Chief of that Bureau, which posi- 
tion he held until his retirement in 1921. 


RussELL ARTHUR OAKLEY, a member of the AcapEmy, died August 6, in 
Monrovia, California. He was born in Marysville, Kansas, September 7, 
1880, and was educated at Kansas State Agricultural College and at the 
University of Chicago. He became connected with the Bureau of Plant 
Industry in 1903, and for many years devoted himself to the study and im- 
provement of turf grasses. Silages and the photoperiodism of alfalfa were 
among the other subjects to which he devoted attention. For several years 
previous to his death he served as Principal Agronomist in charge of the 
Division of Forage Crops and Diseases. 


OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS 


THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND 
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


“ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS 


Saturday, September 19 The Helminthological Society 
Thursday, October 1 The Entomological Society 
Saturday, October 3 The Biological Society 


The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if 
sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month. 


OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY 


President: N. A. Cops, Bureau of Plant Industry. 

Corresponding Secretary: Paut E. Hows, Bureati of Animal Industry. 
Recording Secretary: CHARLES THom, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. 
Treasurer: Henry G. Avrers, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 


CONTENTS 


ORIGINAL PAPERS 


Page 
Botany.—New plants mainly from western South America—III. Ellsworth P. 
SG) Ty ORR paren GU OS OIE ES I a's ibd wed Soe bee kia keen ee . 347 
Herpetology.—A new lizard (Anolis pinchoti) from Old Providence Island. Doris — 
WM Cochran: cee as Sees Fhe oe Cy Dele sea Oe 354 
Zoology.—Chondronema passali (Leidy, 1852) n.g. (Nematoda), with notes on its 
life history. J. R. Christie and B.‘G. Chitwood:... os. 00. 0 oes . 356 
Paleontology.—Indianites, new name for the Cambrian crustacean Indiana Ulrich 
QING PRBRET fo. Sewn ss 0b iw egies ho wale wk ou Oa" We ets Gia ee 0 aa 364 
PROCEEDINGS 
The Geological Society. . 26.06 a Ss i eee . 365 
The-Botanies! Society. ¢52.2.5 ac ek se es FaW'eb sie wel ainieleiele 6 ee . 312 
Scrmsrurice Norms anp NBWsiiic5 5 oor sk oes Vceiccc eos Sach us cba sce oe tees 375 
Oxrtuary: Arthur M. Farrington, Russell Arthur Oakley...............c..00000 376 


This JouURNAL is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Ng 


OcroBER 4, 1931 No. 16 


o JOURNAL 


OF THE 


oo 


“WASHINGTON ACADEMY — 
OF SCIENCES 


} BOARD OF EDITORS 


C. WytTHE CooKkEe CHARLES DRECHSLER Huau L. Drypen 
Uv. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OF STANDARDS 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


W. J. Peters Haronip MorRIson 
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


E. A. GoLDMAN G. W. Stosre 


BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


Aanes CHASE J. R. SWANTON 
BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTY 


5 Roger C. WELLS 
; . CHEMICAL SOCIETY 


PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY 
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BY THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 21 OcToBER 4, 1931 No. 16 


POPULATION ANALYSIS.—The extinction of families—I.! ALFRED 
J. Lorka, New York. 

The theoretical discussion of the chances of extinction of a line of 
descent was first given by H. W. Watson in 1889, following a sugges- 
tion of Francis Galton. Watson showed that the chances of ultimate 
extinction of a male line of descent, reckoned at the moment of birth 
of the first male in the line, is given by the positive root inferior to 
unity, if such a root exists, of the equation for x 


Ch— 16 ere re Cet HE hes (1) 


where C'y denotes the probability, at birth, that a male shall eventually 
have just N sons. From the nature of the coefficients C it is clear that 


ie (2) 


The same problem has also been discussed, essentially with the same 
results, by J. F. Steffensen (Mathmatisk Tidskrift 1930 p. 19). 

The theoretical treatment of the problem is thus available in the 
existing literature. But there remains to be established a working 
connection between the analytical formula and available statistical 
data. 

Probability of eventually having n children. If p(a) is the probability, 
at birth, of reaching age a, and if m, (a) is the rate at which nth chil- 
dren are born of parents of age a and of given sex, per head of popula- 
tion of age a and of that sex, then evidently, the probability that a 
newborn child of the given sex shall eventually have n or more chil- 
dren is given by | 


A= | pla) mila) da (m= 1,2,3,...) 8) 
ae 


1 Received August 6, 1931. 
377 


378 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 16 


and the probability that it will eventually have just n children is 
Ore, Aap eA (4) 


So far no attention has been paid to the particular sex of the original 
ancestor and the progeny under consideration. It is now necessary to 
take this into account, because the numerical values of the characteris- 
tics involved are different for the two sexes. Chief interest attaches 
to the male sex, because the family name is perpetuated in direct an- 
cestral male line. Now the published statistics for the United States 
do not give directly all the data required to form the products p (a) 
m, (a) for the male sex specifically. Itis necessary to obtain them by a 
series of indirect steps, as follows: 

Data available directly. The annual reports of births in the United 
States give explicitly a tabulation of total births? in the year of the 
report, classified by age of mother and by order of child at birth.* 

Another table gives the total births, irrespective of order of child, 
classified by age of father and of mother. 

On the assumption, admittedly approximate, that the relation be- 
tween the ages of father and mother is essentially the same for children 
of all orders, the data of the first-mentioned table were redistributed, 
for each order of child taken separately, in accordance with the ratios 
appearing in the second table, so as to give the number of births classi- 
fied by age of father and by order of child at birth. 

Having thus obtained figures for births classified by age of father 
and by order of child, these figures were then divided each by the cor- 
responding male population of the same age. ‘The result is what may 
be called the paternity frequency among males of specified age, count- 
ing only children of specified order, and of both sexes; it is the quantity 
denoted by the symbol m,, (a) in equation (3) above, in the case that 
we are considering the male parents. We are, therefore, now in a 
position to determine by (4) numerical values of the quantities c,, 
which measure the probability that a male just born shall eventually 
have just n children, counting both sons and daughters. 

One step now remains to be performed. From the series of values 
C, we must derive the corresponding probabilities Cy that a male just 
born shall eventually have just N sons. 

The process of deriving the values Cy from the set of c,’s is best ex- 
plained by reference to the accompanying Table 1. This is built up 
from the data appearing in the bottom line of the table, which are the 

2 In the Birth Registration Area. For 1920 see Ann. Rep. p. 201, Table 7. 


’ Counting all the liveborn children of the family, whether living or deceased. 
4 For 1920 see Ann. Rep. p. 193, Table 6. 


oct. 4, 1931 LOTKA: EXTINCTION OF FAMILIES 379 


values of the c,’s (probability, at birth of eventually having just n 
children), determined according to (4). Each figure appearing in this 
bottom line has been distributed over the entries in the column above, 
in accordance with the frequency with which N sons will occur among n 
children in the same family. ‘This frequency is given by the coefficient 
of p in (px + q)”, where p and q are, respectively, the probabilities of a 
birth being male or female. The exact numerical values of p and q 
for the sex ratio at birth in the general population are 0.515 and 0.485. 
It is not strictly permissible to use this same figure as representing the 
sex ratio at birth among children of one family, because within one 


TABLE 1.—Cuancess, PER 10,000, THat a NewBorn MALE Witt EvENTUALLY Have 
n CHILDREN, CoMPRISING N Sons 


United States White Males, 1920 


n 


aha (ay ae 5je|7|s| 9 10 | 11] 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | a8 | = (2) 
| 
O |3686| 787) 319| 122) 44) 15] 5] 2) 1) | | 4981 
1 788| 639] 364177| 77| 33| 14| 7| 3) 1 2103 
2 319| 364\266 153) 82 43) 24 10/ 6| 2 1 1270 
3 122|177|153)109| 73| 47| 24) 15} 6| 3] 1 730 
4 44) 77| 82| 72| 58| 37) 26| 12} 6| 3) 1 418 
5 15] 33] 43] 47) 36] 30] 18] 11] 5] 2) 1 241 
6 5| 14| 24) 24] 26] 17] 12] 5] 3i 1] 1 132 
7 | a 7| 10] 15] 12] 101 6 4) 2/1 69 
8 etree ai aglelel elppea or Sy | 4 35 
9 | | Po og Lae olymeet 2k beh bt al 15 
10 | | | | By Oey pa 5 
| | [eer el | 
(1) so isza.t277 972/708 490/349 263 216 147126 75) 53) 29| 17,8 | 5 | 2 | 1 |10,000 


> (1): Chance that a newborn male shall have n children. 
2 (2): Chance that a newborn male shall have N sons. 


family the sexes of the several children cannot be regarded as independ- 
ent or “‘uncorrelated.”’ There is a marked tendency, due undoubtedly 
to physiological causes, for some families to exhibit a marked prepond- 
erance of one sex, either male or female. But as a first approximation 
we may employ the values of p and g as observed in the general popu- 
lation, and, furthermore, it will greatly simplify our arithmetic if in 
place of the exact values 0.515 and 0.485 we employ the approximate 
values 0.5 and 0.5; that is, if we disregard the slight bias in favor of 
the birth of males.® 


> In the United States the average of the sex ratio at birth over many years is 106 
boys to 100 girls. 


380 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 16 


After the body of the table has thus been filled in by distributing the 
figures from the bottom line over the corresponding columns, the 
figures in the last column are finally obtained by summing the figures 
in each horizontal line. The figures thus obtained, and shown in 
the last column of Table 1, are the values of Cy that is, the probability 
for a male, at birth, that he shall eventually have just N sons. 

We are now in a position to make numerical application of the funda- 
mental formula (1), in which we have 


Cy = 1 SAS 
3 On = ly = aby ee (5) 
so that 
g=1—A, + (41 — A.) 2+ (4. —As) +. 2, (6) 
1S Ay Ag Aa ee Bee, (7) 


Under ordinary conditions, if a root of (7) inferior to unity exists, 
it will be but little below unity. The solution of that equation is 
therefore best effected by introducing a new variable 


fl we (8) 
Making this substitution in (7) we obtain, after some simplification, 


PSRs Oe Oye On cid ae (9) 


where R, is the ratio of total male births in two consecutive genera- 
tions, namely 


R, = {pla my (@) aa (10) 


and where the coefficients Q take the form 


= pau A, é , > (12) 

The equation (9) is readily solved by successive approximations, 

since é is small. As applied to the data for the United States in 1920 

it gave the following values for x, the probability of the male line of de- 

scent, from a newborn male, ultimately becoming extinct: First ap- 

proximation, .8930; second approximation, .8800; fifth and six ap- 
proximations, identical to four places of decimals, .8797. 


oct. 4,1931 ADAMS AND GIBSON: CUBIC COMPRESSIBILITY 381 


PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.—The cubic compressibility of certain 
substances. L. H. Adams and R. E. Gisson. Geophysical 
Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. 

In the course of several years we have accumulated results on the 
eubic compressibility of a number of unrelated solids and liquids. 
These compressibilities were determined directly at pressures ranging 
from 1 to 12,000 bars? by the piston-displacement method which has 
been used in the Geophysical Laboratory for the last fifteen years and 
which is described in detail elsewhere. The work leading to the es- 
timation of the compressibility of a substance by this method may be 
divided into three main parts. 

1. The volume of the specimen, V., is accurately determined at 
atmospheric pressure. ‘This gives, incidentally, a reliable estimate of 
the density or the specific volume of the substance. 

2. The accumulation of data necessary for the compilation of a table 
of (k —k’) at intervals of 1 kilobar from 2 to 12 kilobars.# 

The significance of k and k’ may be elucidated by brief reference to 
the actual experimental procedure. The specimen under investiga- 
tion is placed in a heavy-walled cylinder or bomb and immersed in n- 
butyl ether. The ether is then compressed between the walls of the 
bomb and the lower surface of a leak-proof piston which is forced into 
the bomb. The pressure is measured with an electrical pressure gauge 
and at even kilobars the displacement of the piston is read. From 
these readings, after the application of a few corrections, the change in 
volume of the contents of the bomb for each kilobar rise in pressure 
may be calculated. In order to eliminate the volume change due to 
the pressure fluid (butyl ether) and to the distortion in the bomb, a 
run is made under exactly similar conditions and in identically the 
same way with a standard material, Bessemer steel, whose compressi- 
bility is known. From these two series of readings it is possible to 
compute the relative change in volume per cm? of the specimen when 
the pressure is raised from atmospheric pressure to any pressure p. 

This relative volume change for which the name, the bulk compres- 
sion,®> or simply the compression, is advocated, is denoted by the 
symbol k. 


1 Received August 5, 1931. 

2 1 bar = 10° dynes per cm? or a c.g.s. atmosphere. 

8’ Adams, Williamson, and Johnston. Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. 41: 12. 1919; Adams 
and Williamson. Journ. Franklin Inst. 195: 475. 1923. 

* 1 kilobar = 1000 bars = 1000 c.g.s. atmospheres. 

5 See Parsons and Cook. Proc. Roy. Soc. 85: 332-48. 1911. 


082 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 16 


Hence k = -2 7» where V, is volume of specimen at pressure p 
VY, and V,is its volume at atmospheric pressure. 

For convenience in working we make measurements from an ar- 
bitrary zero of pressure, viz. 2 kilobars. The symbol k’ is used to 
denote shrinkage in volume per cm* produced when the pressure sur- 
rounding the substance is increased from 1 to 2000 bars. Hence (k — 
k:’) is the decrease in volume which one em? of the substance measured 
at atmospheric pressure suffers when its pressure is raised from 2 
kilobars to any pressure p. 

3. By the method of least squares (k — k’) is expressed as a function 
of the pressure and hence the compressibility 6 = oe is 
evaluated. 

In this communication we shall classify the results according to the 
substance examined, giving under each heading the object of the de- 
termination, the density of the material, tables of (k — k’) at different 
pressures, and the value of 6 which we consider most probable. The 
tables of results give & or (k — k’) as a function of pressure. In most 
cases an equation of the form 


(k —k’) =a + bp + cp? 


was fitted to the data by the method of least squares. The column 
labelled “least square residuals” gives the difference between the ob- 
served values of (k — k’) and those calculated from the appropriate 
quadratic equation whose coefficients a, b and c appear at the head of 
the table. This column illustrates how well the equation represents 
the data. 

Standard of comparison. The cylinder of Bessemer steel which has 
always been used for this purpose in this Laboratory served as the 
standard of comparison and Bridgman’s® value for the bulk compression 
of steel, viz. 10®°k = 59.9 p — 0.22 p?, was assumed as a basis on which 
to compute the results. 

Pyrex glass. Since piezometers and capsules made from pyrex glass 
are continually used in this Laboratory, it is desirable for practical 
reasons to have an accurate knowledge of the compressibility of this 
material. From measurements of the linear compressibility of pyrex 
glass, Bridgman’ gave the following value for the cubic compressibility : 


10° 6 = 304.1 + 1.46 p reciprocal kilobars. 


A startling feature of this result was the increase in compressibility 


6 P. W. Bridgman. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sei. 58: 174. 1923. 
an W. Bridgman. Am. Journ. Sci. 10: 363. 1925. 


ocT. 4,1931 ADAMS AND GIBSON: CUBIC COMPRESSIBILITY 383 


with pressure exhibited by this glass. It was considered worth while 
checking this result by a direct determination of the cubic com- 
pressibility. : 

The sample of pyrex glass examined was in the form of a rod 3? 
inches in diameter and 4 inches long which was practically free from 
bubbles. It was made available for our use through the courtesy of 
the Corning Glass Works. ‘The density of the glass determined at 
23.2° by the Archimedes method was 2.233 g/cm’ and its refractive 
index,’ np, was 1.473. 

The results of the two latest determinations of the compressibility 
of pyrex glass are given in Table 1. 


TABLE 1. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR PyrREX GLASS 


a = —615 a= —620 
b= 302.4 b= 306.5 
Pressure c= 0.87 C= 0.55 
(kilobars) 
es : Least square Ilo = Least square 
(k—k’) X 105 ~ 5 (k—k’) X 105 : 5 
(obs iy (obs Geeta 
i, 3135 —4 3128 —9 
ii 2828 12 2829 tf 
10 2497 1 2504 4 
9 2158 —19 2169 —14 
8 1865 6 1876 9 
7 1546 it 1550 —3 
6 1243 12 1244 5 
5 913 —6 917 —9 
4 612 4 615 1 
3 287 —13 299 —6 
2 0 7 ) 5 
1 — 320* —325* 


* Not used in least square calculation. 


The mean of the two results gives the following value of k, the total 
bulk compression produced by increase of pressure from atmospheric 
pressure to p kilobars: 


105k = 304.5 + 0.71 p? (1) 


This value is substantiated by two determinations made in 1925 which 
gave as an average: 


10° & = 303.2 p + 0.18 p? (2) 


Taking into account the recent improvements in our technique we 
are inclined at this time to give all the weight to equation (1) and to 


8 We are indebted to Dr. H. E. Merwin of this Laboratory for this value. 


384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 16 
give as our estimate of the most probable value of the cubic compres- 
sibility of pyrex, 

10° 6 = 304.5 + 1.42 7 recip. kb. at 25°C. 


The agreement between this value and Bridgman’s is obvious, and 
in particular all our results confirm his observation that the compressi- 
bility of pyrex increases with pressure. 

Vitreous silica. According to Bridgman’, who gives as the com- 
pressibility of vitreous silica, 


10° 8 = 269.9 + 3.66 p recip. kb at 30°, 


TABLE 2. ExpERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR VITREOUS SILICA 


a = —560 a = —563 
b= 27326 b= 27528 
Pressure c= 1.84 C= 1.60 
(kilobars) gal oo Re) 
(k—h') X 105 Least square - (k—k’) X 105 Least square 
(bs) rare (obs a 
12 2977 —11 2972 —4 
11 2683 11 2665 1 
10 2369 9 2356 it 
9 2043 —9 2048 0 
8 1748 Z 1751 5 
7 1445 0 1450 4 
6 1157 9 1158 9 
5 842 —12 837 —19 
4 561 —3 557 —9 
3 277 0 284. 5 
2 0 5 0 5 
il —271* — 286* 


* Not used in least square calculation. 


this glass exhibits the greatest increase of compressibility with pressure 
of any substance yet examined. Our results confirm this statement. 
We made experiments on a cylinder of perfectly clear vitreous silica 

whose only flaws were a few long, exceedingly fine capillaries—probably 
elongated bubbles. The volume of the specimen at atmospheric pres- 
sure was 20.262 cm, and its density, determined at 23°C. by the Archi- 
medes method, was 2.204 g/cm’. The specimen came from the Gen- 
eral Electric Company’s works at Lynn, Massachusetts. Five series 
of measurements on this specimen were made, three in 1925, and two 
in 1930. ‘Table 2 gives the results of the last two determinations. On 
averaging the coefficients in this table we obtain equation (3): 


ocT. 4,1931 ADAMS AND GIBSON: CUBIC COMPRESSIBILITY 385 


107% 
107% 


274.7 p + 1.72 p? (3) 
257.4 p + 2.79 p? (4) 


In the three earlier results the values of the coefficients b and c¢ were 
258.1, 259.9, and 253.3; and 2.61, 2.86, and 2.90 respectively. The 
average of these gives equation (4). In assigning a most probable 
value to the compressibility we have again taken the improvement in 
our technique into account and have given the later result twice the 
weight of the earlier one. Our estimate of the compressibility of vitre- 
ous silica is, therefore, 


10° 6 = 268.9 + 4.15 p, 


which agrees very closely with Bridgman’s value. 


TABLE 3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR OBSIDIAN 


2 


1 
a = —571 a = —570 
b =) aber b= 283.9 
Pressure c= —0.58 c= —0.38 
(kilobars) 
(k—k’) X 105 Least square (k—k’) X 105 Least square 
(bs oe ce a aD 
12 2770 —4 2781 —]l 
11 2509 7 2507 0 
10 2226 —2 2226 —5 
9 1953 0 1952 —2 
8 1681 83 1687 10 
a 1406 HY 1406 il 
6 1131 9 1124 4 
5) 824 —19 823 —17 
4 enh. —6 550 —9 
3) 287 6 284 6 
2D 0 2 0 4 
1 —313* —287* 


* Not used in least square calculation. 


Obsidian. The compressibility of the specimen of obsidian de- 
scribed in a previous paper® was redetermined largely with a view to 
establishing more firmly the sign and magnitude of the pressure co- 
efficient of the compressibility. Glasses with high silica content, e.g. 
pyrex glass, resemble vitreous silica in exhibiting an increase of com- 
pressibility with pressure, while glasses with low silica content behave 
in the ordinary way. Obsidian is a naturally occurring glass contain- 
ing over 70 per cent of silica, and its compressibility shows very little 


9 Adams and Williamson. Journ. Franklin Inst. 195: 483. 1923. 


386 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 16 


change with pressure. It is evidently on the border line between the 
glasses which behave normally under pressure and those which do 
not. The volume of the specimen we used was 20.007 cm? and its 
density at 25°C. was 2.333 grams per cm.? The experimental results 
are given in Table 3. 

The equation, 10° k = 284.8 p — 0.48 p?, represents the mean of 
these results and leads to the following equation for the compressibility : 


10° 6 = 284.8 — 0.96 p. 


Adams and Williamson found that as far as their results could show 
the bulk compression of obsidian was a linear function of the pressure 
and that the value of 6 at 7 kilobars was 2.88 x 10-’ reciprocal kilo- 


TABLE 4. ExpERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR DURALUMIN 


a= —259 
b= 121.0 
Pressure (kilobars) 
(k—k’) XK 105 Least square residuals x 105 5; 
(obs) (obs-cale) 
12 1184 —9 
11 1094 22 
10 947 —4 
9 817 —13 
8 706 —3 
7 592 4 
6 476 9 
3) 302 6 
4 Daley, = 12 
5) 87 ) —17 
2 | 0 1L7/ 


bars. This value may be compared with 2.78 x 10-° reciprocal kilo- 
bars, which is the compressibility of obsidian at 7 kilobars as computed 
from the results in this paper. Bridgman!° measured the compressi- 
bility of a sample of obsidian from Ascension Island by the linear 
method. He interpreted his results as indicating that the compressi- 
bility of this natural glass first decreases and then increases as the 
pressure is raised. His value of the compressibility at 7 kb is consider- 
ably lower than ours, being of the order of 2.55 x 10-3 reciprocal 
kilobars. ‘Two considerations prevent close comparison between 
Bridgman’s results and ours. First, the sample of obsidian he examined 
contained three per cent less silica than our sample—a circumstance 


10 P, W. Bridgman. Am. Journ. Sci. 10: 364. 1925. 


oct. 4,1931 ADAMS AND GIBSON: CUBIC COMPRESSIBILITY 387 
which would call for a lower compressibility in Bridgman’s sample. 
Second, as Bridgman himself implies, especially in the case of a basaltic 


glass from Kilauea, the linear method cannot be trusted too far to 


give the cubic compressibility of natural glasses. 


Duralumin. 


of a cylinder built of disks and held together by gold wire. 
Tuckerman of the U. 8. Bureau of Standards was kind enough to 
supply the specimen, which was described as 45-duralumin, Bureau of 
Standards Number 6532 E-4. 

Only one determination was made, and the results are given in 


Table 4. 
of the pressure. 


TABLE 5. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR THREE SALTS 


The sample of duralumin examined was in the form 


Dre B: 


A linear equation was used to express (k — k’) as a function 


Sea Peres Potassium eulpuete Sodium epinuate 
b= 668.9 b= 331.8 b= 2871 
Pressure c = —13.86 c= —3.83 c= —2.38 
(kilobars) se ase Se 
Ae . | Least square W .| Least square peesiairs .| Least square 
(k—k") X 10° a i .| (k—k”) X 105 : a | (e—k7) X 103 : : 
CST SE a ue aga a ees a8 Co Mia ba tere 
10 4666 1 2618 if 1912 1 
9 4278 19 2358 0 1704 —16 
8 3804 —22 2082 —9 1499 —25 
it 3360 —5 1825 8 1334 10 
6 2869 —7 1525 —10 1123 4 
5) 2367 rf 1244 —l 904 —9d 
4 1816 0 948 0 702 8 
3 1258 14 665 22 490 15 
2 656 17 332 2 263 12 
1 | 0 —17 0 —10 0 — 22 


/ 


The average compressibility of this substance between 2 and 12 
kilobars is 1.21 X 10-3 reciprocal kilobars. 

Solid salts. We have also determined the compressibilities of three 
solid salts, ammonium nitrate, potassium sulphate, and sodium sulphate. 
The last-named salt was in the form, Na,SO.V, or thenardite. All 
these salts received the same treatment. The powdered salt (J. T. 
Baker’s C. P. Analyzed) was pressed into extremely compact pellets 
with the help of a testing machine capable of exerting a force of 5000 
kg. Enough pellets were weighed out to give a total volume of salt of 
10 cm*. This was the volume of the salt, not that of the salt plus the 
pore space. The pellets were placed in a steel capsule and submitted 
to hydrostatic pressure. A comparison run with 10 cm? of steel in- 
stead of the salt in the capsule enabled us to estimate directly the 


388 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 16 


difference between the compressibility of the salt and of the standard, 
steel. The ammonium nitrate was not compressed to pellets but 
melted and cast into a cylinder. Two series of measurements were 
made on ammonium nitrate, two on potassium sulphate, and one on 
sodium sulphate. The average observed values of the compressions 
are recorded in Table 5. Equations (5), (6), and (7) represent the 
average results for ammonium nitrate, potassium sulphate, and sodium 
sulphate respectively: 


10° k = 668.9 p — 13.86 p? (5) 
10° k = 331.89 — 3.83 p? (6) 
10k = 237.1 p = 2.38 9 (7) 


The compressibility, 6, of any of these salts may be obtained by dif- 
ferentiation of the appropriate equation. 

. N-butyl ether. Contrary to expectation, this remarkable licuatek al- 
though relatively non-volatile, does not freeze at pressures as high as 
12,500 bars at room température. In addition it appears to be com- 
paratively fluid at these high pressures and so is an excellent pressure- 
transmitting liquid. The n-butyl ether we used came from the East- 
man Kodak Laboratories. It is listed as No. 173 B.p. 142-144°. 
Two series of determinations were made over the high-pressure range 
and a special piezometer method was employed to measure the bulk 
compression up to 2 kilobars, which, it should be remarked, is more 
than one-third of the bulk compression produced when the pressure 
is raised from zero up to 12 kilobars. : 

In Table 6 we record the second series of results. It was found that 
the points from 7 to 12 kilobars for both series were represented ac- 
curately by equation (8), , 

10!k = 1058 + 187.8 p. — 4.88 p? (8) 
Below 7 kb, however, the differences between the values of & as cal- 
culated by equation (8) and those observed increased enormously. 


For the second series of results these differences could be repre- 
sented by the equation 


LOT) Sa O28 ene we (9) 


where A is the difference between the observed value of & and that 
calculated by equation (8). Hence the equation 


10k = 1058 + 187.8 p — 4.88 p? — 1028 e270 (10) 


oct. 4,1931 ADAMS AND GIBSON: CUBIC COMPRESSIBILITY 389 


was used to express the second set of results and gives the values of 
104k shown in column 3. The differences at low pressures were greater 
than might be desired, a fact which is partly due to the difficulty we 
encountered in estimating exactly the values of k between 0 and 2 kb. 
In the first series of results where the uncertainties at low pressures 
were greater, the value of (k o»; — Kk cac) at 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 kb were 
—30, 42, —4, —15, and 6, respectively, although, as has been men- 
tioned, equation (13) fitted accurately above 6 kb. 

It is of interest to note that a mass of n-butyl ether which occupies 
100 cm? at atmospheric pressure occupies 89.5 em? at 2000 bars and 
74 em? at 12,000 bars. 


TABLE 6. RESULTS FOR N-BUTYL ETHER 


Pressure (kilobars) 104k (obs) 104k (cale) Difference X 10+ 


(obs-cale) 
12 2608 2609 —1 
11 2532 2534 —2 
10 2448 2447 i 
9 2353 2351 2 
8 2246 2244 2 
"4 2132 ZAZ5 7 
6 1998 1994 4 
5) 1843 1844 —1 
4 1665 1668 —3 
3 1441 1452 —l1 
2 1156 1160 —4 
1 747 733 14 
0 


Conclusion. ‘This communication illustrates the variety of ways in 
which the compressibility of matter changes with pressure. At one 
extreme there are the silica-rich glasses whose compressibility increases 
markedly at the high pressures. At the other extreme a liquid such as 
butyl ether decreases in compressibility very rapidly up to five kilobars 
while at higher pressures its compressibility changes no more than that 
of a solid like ammonium nitrate. Intermediate between these two 
extremes come substances like obsidian and duralumin where the de- 
crease of compressibility with pressure is barely detectable over a 
range of twelve thousand atmospheres. Lastly, the salts may be 
taken as typical of the ordinary not too incompressible crystalline 
solid whose rate of decrease of compressibility, although large at first, 
diminishes steadily as the pressure rises. 


390 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 16 


It will, therefore, be obvious that any general rules for estimating 
the magnitude of the change of compressibility of a substance from 
observations on other substances should only be applied after careful 
consideration of the nature and structure of the substances involved. 
In particular, rules deduced for the rate of change of compressibility - 
of holocrystalline materials should not in general be applied to glasses. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—New Carboniferous invertebrates—II1.1 GEorGcE 
H. Girty, U. 8. Geological Survey. 


Schizophoria peculiaris n. sp. 
Figs. 1-4 


Shell very small, broadly ovate in outline, varying in proportions but always 
wider than long, highly convex, coarsely striated. 

The pedicle valve may be compared to a cone which is elliptical at the 
base, very depressed, very oblique, and considerably arched in the apical 
part. The hinge line is equal to about half the greatest width but when the 
valve is viewed from above it is mostly concealed by the projecting umbonal 
parts. The outline, due to these two factors, has an ovate shape but little 
interrupted by the cardinal angles, with well rounded and strongly divergent 
sides and a broad gently convex or sometimes faintly emarginate anterior 
margin. The cardinal area is high, but not so high as it is wide and it is 
neither strongly arched nor strongly inclined backward. The beak tapers 
rapidly to a point and is not greatly incurved. The convexity is high and 
regular, though chiefly localized in the posterior part and the median line 
may be depressed into an obscure sinus. 

The brachial valve differs in shape but little from the pedicle valve. The 
cardinal area is lower and it lies essentially in the plane of the shell margins. 
Though lower than the cardinal area of the pedicle valve, it extends almost 
as far beyond the hinge line and is relatively high for a shell of this kind and 
size. The beak (compared with the ventral beak) is blunter and more in- 
curved. A median sinus is of more common occurrence in this valve than 
in the other, and though never strong, it is likewise more distinct. If a sinus 
is present, and especially if a sinus is also present in the pedicle valve, the 
outline in front is correspondingly emarginate. 

The surface is marked by radial lirae that are exceptionally strong and 
coarse for a shell of this size. They are separated by relatively wide inter- 
spaces, though many of the interspaces are partly occupied by interstitial 
lirae which subsequently become as large as the others. ‘The lirae vary in 
size and spacing and the surface generally has an irregular appearance. To 
this appearance of irregularity the tendency of the larger lirae to end abruptly 
in a large pore or hollow spine contributes somewhat, and also the varices of 
growth that some specimens developed. Hollow, prominent and interrupted 
lirae are not a conspicuous feature and on many specimens they are difficult 
to distinguish at all. They are mostly to be looked for on the pedicle valve. 
The varices of growth which are especially common and especially strong on 
these shells, of course interrupt all the lirae simultaneously. 


1 Published by permission of the Acting Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. 
For the previous papers of this series, see this JouRNAL 19: 135-142 and 406-415. Re- 
ceived July 29, 1931. 


oct. 4, 1931 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 391 


Most of the Schizophorias in our American Carboniferous faunas are large 
shells. The present species differs from them not only in size, but in other 
respects, so much that detailed comparisons seem unnecessary. That the 
shells included here merely represent the immature condition of some larger 
species seems unlikely, not only because they are associated with no large 
species of which on other grounds they could be the immature form, but 
because they occur in considerable numbers and are more or less uniform in 
size and in other characters. The largest specimen referred here has a width 
of 12 mm., the next largest, 10 mm. and so on down. 

Horizon and locality: Upper part of the Hueco limestone; Marble Canyon, 
east face of the Diablo Plateau, Hudspeth County, Texas (station 6681). 


Pustula palmeri n. sp. 
Mies a0), 


Shell small, rarely 10 mm. in width, highly convex (in the pedicle valve), 
lacking both radial costae and concentric wrinkles that are either systematic 
or pronounced but marked by numerous small spines which project from large 
rounded bases. 

Pedicle valve subquadrate in outline except for the projecting umbonal 
parts, the front and sides being more or less straightened merging in strong 
curves around the antero-lateral angles. The proportions vary in different 
specimens, but the width seems to be regularly greater than the length. The 
hinge line is about equal to the width below, but it is more apt to be slightly 
shorter than slightly longer. The shell is strongly and rather regularly 
arched. ‘Transversely the curvature is somewhat subdued across the median 
part with a steep descent on either side to the small depressed auricles. The 
umbonal parts are rather prominent and they project considerably beyond 
the hinge when the valve is viewed from above but not more than is common. 

The surface is primarily marked by spines which arise from large well 
defined nodes. The spines are numerous and though actually small, are 
rather large for the size of the shell. They are more or less regularly arranged 
on a plan which is fundamentally alternating or quincunxial. This arrange- 
ment, however, is not as a rule conspicuous, a formation in transverse rows 
being more obvious than any other. In some specimens curving oblique rows 
are formed at the sides and in others the development of spines and nodes is 
accompanied by a tendency to form large indistinct radial costae on the 
anterior parts. The nodes and spines become gradually smaller and more 
closely arranged toward the hinge line, near which all the transverse features 
converge to some extent. Several specimens have a row of small spines 
along the hinge margin, but this may not be a constant feature. On one of 
these especially the spines were developed in connection with a series of small, 
sharp, regular plications extending downward from the margin, a spine to 
each plication. The spines with their nodose bases are more numerous on 
some specimens than on others, and aside from number, the nodes vary also 
in size and prominence. On some specimens they are by no means conspicu- 
ous. The surface is marked by striae of growth in the nature of microscopic 
and irregular concentric wrinkles. Some of these are delicately lamellose. 
Though not developed regularly or at regular intervals, other striae much 
larger than the incremental ones occur here and there between the rows of 


392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 16 


spines and pustules. More regularly large wrinkles or plications are devel- 
oped near the hinge line but they lose their strength within a short distance 
except as they may be represented by the stronger grooves that pass between 
and emphasize the rows of spines. 

The brachial valve corresponds in shape with the pedicle valve in the usual 
manner. It is strongly transverse and in outline rather subquadrate than 
semi-circular. It is gently concave so that a relatively ample cavity is left 
within. The curvature is not quite regular, being low over the visceral disk 
and more pronounced over the marginal parts without, however, any marked 
discrepancy. 

The most conspicuous surface feature in this valve consists of small rounded 
indentations or dimples which evidently correspond individually to the nodes 
on the surface of the pedicle valve. These indentations become deeper and 
more elongate toward the cardinal margin, so that the elevations between 
them take the shape of more or less irregular wrinkles. Microscopic wrinkles 
of incremental nature cover the entire surface which sometimes also is marked 
by concentric undulations (broad grooves and narrow ridges), all very faint 
but fairly regular where they occur at all. 

This valve also is armed with spines which are at least as numerous as the 
spines of the pedicle valve and much smaller. They occur distributed among 
the dimples and spring from the surface without giving rise to appreci- 
able nodes. 


Species of the general character of P. palmerz are rare in our Pennsylvanian 
faunas and I am able to name but two which can profitably be compared 
with it. P. keytez has fewer and smaller spines which were developed without 
appreciably disturbing the even curvature of the pedicle valve by giving rise 
to nodes or spine bases. Although the nodose or monticulate surface is not 
a constant feature in P. palmer, at least in a conspicuous degree, it is a very 
common one. P. keytez is also somewhat smaller and it is somewhat differ-_ 
ently proportioned, being comparatively long whereas P. palmerz is compara- 
tively broad. Pustula globosa is more comparable to P. palmeri in size and 
shape but it has much fewer spines and the spines, though leaving large scars 
on the surface, did not produee distinct elevations in the nature of spine bases. 

Horizon and locality: Cherokee shale; mine dumps near Joplin, Missouri. 


Pustula keytei n. sp. 
Figs. 11-14. 


Shell very small, hemispherical, without radial costae, and without con- 
centric plications, but covered with numerous small spines. 

Pedicle valve irregularly ovate in outline with length and width about equal 
though commonly somewhat longer than wide. Outline in front of the hinge 
rather regularly rounded. Hinge a little shorter than the width in front, 
mostly concealed by the umbonal parts when the valve is viewed from above. 
Convexity high. Umbonal region rather gibbous descending abruptly to the 
small, ill-defined auricles and projecting well beyond the hinge. A section 
longitudinally would show the greatest height posterior to the mid-length 
with a gradually decreasing curve forward. 


“oct. 4, 1931 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 393 


The surface, which is without even traces of radial costae, is marked by fine, 
incremental lines. The sides of the vault and the auricles show small sub- 
equal concentric plications most of which spread out and become indis- 
tinguishable over the intermediate parts. A few of the grooves may persist, 
marking off concentric bands but this is more or less sporadic and developed 
especially on the visceral disc. Some of the striae also are lamellose along 
the posterior side. The spines which are represented by scars or by fragments 
of the basal parts, were apparently small and perpendicular to the surface, 
from which they were developed without giving rise to conspicuous nodes or 
spine bases. They show a general tendency to form concentric rows and occur 
scatteringly over the median part of the vault but in more close arrangement 
on its sides. 

The brachial valve is semicircular in outline. The width, though greater 
than the length, is by no means twice as great. The curvature is moderately 
strong but much lower than that of the pedicle valve so that a considerable 
space is left between them. The curvature is also fairly regular—perhaps 
a little strengthened over the marginal parts. The surface features are so 
subdued as to be rather inconspicuous. Very fine incremental striae can be 
seen and descending from the hinge fine obscure wrinkles which either lose 
themselves in passing across the intermediate part or give rise to faint con- 
centric undulations. Scattered over the surface, though scarcely to be seen 
except in a favorable light, are small dimple-like depressions that correspond 
to spines on the pedicle valve and were apparently developed simultaneously 
with them. This valve also was provided with spines but in comparison 
with the spines of the pedicle valve, they are smaller and less numerous. 
Because they are small, however, some may have been overlooked and their 
number may really be greater than it appears. 


Mr. Mather has described a species very similar to this from the Morrow 
group of Arkansas, of Pottsville age. I have a number of specimens from the 
Morrow that would naturally be referred under P. globosa and among them 
it is possible to find individuals that do not differ greatly from P. keytez, but 
most of the specimens and apparently the more typical ones, are relatively 
broader and were armed with distinctly larger spines. The spines are not 
only larger but apparently also less numerous on the sides of the vault and 
less closely arranged; the specimens from Arkansas, however, are not as 
favorably preserved as those from Colorado, and it has not been possible to 
compare them satisfactorily in a number of details. The superficial features 
of the brachial valve, for instance, are neither adequately described by 
Mather, nor are they in certain details adequately shown by my specimens. 
This valve is described as flattened over the visceral disk and abruptly de- 
flected around its margins. Here again the two species appear to differ 
inasmuch as the brachial valve of P. keytez is regularly arched. It should 
be remarked, however, that some of my specimens of P. globosa (if correctly 
identified) are equally regular though others have a flattened visceral disc 
and a deflected margin as described. Another similar but less closely related 
form is P. palmeri. In P. palmeri the spines are more numerous and more 


394 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 16 


regularly arranged and they spring from relatively large, rounded nodes which, 
by reason of their regular arrangement, produce here and there the appear- 
ance of large, ill-developed radial costae. 

Horizon and locality: Fountain formation (Glen Eyrie shale member); 
Glen Eyrie, El Paso County, Colorado (station 5100). 


Avonia williamsana n. sp. 


Figs. 15-19 


Pedicle valve small, rarely more than 15 mm. in width. Width and length 
about equal, though the width is commonly somewhat the greater. Outline 
broadly subovate. Vault moderate in height, gradually enlarging, con- 
spicuously ovate and without a sinus. Hinge line equal to the width in 
front. Auricles quadrate in outline, small, depressed, ill-defined. 

Sculpture comprising growth lines, concentric striae, spines with their 
bases, and radial costae. The growth lines are fine and inconspicuous. The 
concentric striae may be fairly strong and numerous, or on the other hand, 
few and obscure. They are not restricted to the visceral disk but may occur 
at irregular intervals throughout the entire length of the valve. Not rarely 
they are so shaped as to make a step-like descent forward. Broadly speaking, 
the posterior half of the valve is marked by spiniferous nodes and the anterior 
half by spiniferous costae, but the one type of sculpture graduates into the 
other, and the change occurs at different stages of growth in different speci- 
mens. The umbonal region which is somewhat finely and irregularly cor- 
rugated, is marked by numerous nodes which are rather large and surmounted 
by spines which are rather small. In a general way the nodes occur in trans- 
verse rows and alternate in the rows. As growth proceeded the nodes became 
more elongated, passing into short costae that are interrupted by the trans- 
verse striae and these shortly became continuous costae that the weakened 
striae fail to disturb. The spines are numerous over all parts of the surface 
and produce nodes where they occur, but where the spines take off from con- 
tinuous costae, the nodes do not conspicuously deform them. The transverse 
arrangement of the spines in rows in many places is very striking, but the rows 
are irregular, crooked, or discontinuous. The costae are strong and rather 
regular; about 7 or 8 occur in 5 millimeters. | 

The brachial valve is deeply semicircular in outline and considerably wider. 
than long. In the form of an external mold it is moderately convex but it is 
decidedly less convex than the pedicle valve, especially over the umbonal 
parts. These are rather exceptionally prominent for a brachial valve, how- 
ever, and indeed the curvature of the whole valve though varying in different 
specimens is exceptionally strong and rather regular. 

The surface markings, still in terms of the external mold, are a close repeti- 
tion of the surface markings of the pedicle valve. Small nodes cover the 
posterior part and pass by gradual elongation into continuous costae, also 
faintly nodose, the costae corresponding to the costae of the pedicle valve and 
the nodes to the spines upon them. This valve equally with the other, is 
equipped with numerous small spines, and here also the spines are conspicu- 
ously but irregularly alined in transverse rows. They occur in the grooves 
between the costae and the grooves are slightly depressed or enlarged where 
they occur. Of course the grooves represent costae on the shell itself and 


oct. 4, 1931 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES a99d 


the enlargements slight nodes at the bases of the spines. Returning to the 
valve in its condition of external mold, some specimens are crossed by delicate 
flat-lying but conspicuous lamellae spaced at fairly regular but remote inter- 
vals and marking stages of growth. Other specimens appear to lack the 
lamellose feature, and to present instead a surface marked by rather fine 
concentric wrinkles, which are obscure over the median region but gain in 
strength and regularity as they pass onto the sides of the vault and onto 
the auricles. 


If Avonia williamsana is brought into comparison with other Producti at 
present known in our Mississippian faunas it is found to have many distinctive 
characters. It has much in common with some forms of Productus arcuatus 
to judge from Professor Weller’s figures, but P. arcuatus, in its characteristic 
expression is a member of the semzreticulatus group; the visceral disc in the 
pedicle valve is marked by concentric corrugations, the costae are coarser 
than those of A. williamsana and the spines fewer and much larger. Differ- 
ences still more noteworthy are found in the brachial valve in which the 
visceral disk is well differentiated from the trail and strongly wrinkled, while 
spines, which are common on the brachial valve of A. williamsana, appear to 
be entirely wanting. 

If that species were developed on a more generous scale, A. williamsana 
might be compared to the form that Professor Weller in his monograph figures 
from the Burlington limestone as Productus sp. (plate 14, figs. 26 and 27). 
Besides being much larger A. williamsana is distinguished among other differ- 
ences by the more numerous spines and the more gradual appearance of the 
costae. The specimens used to represent the Burlington species in this 
comparison had their source in the white chert of Burlington age at Louisiana 
and Kinderhook, and without much question they represent the Productus 
sp. of Weller’s monograph. 

It is possible that instead of being described as new, Avonia williamsana 
should be identified with A. pustulifera Moore. ‘The evidence on this head 
is somewhat contradictory. As represented by Moore’s figures, A. pustulifera 
has a less spreading shape, coarser costae, and less numerous spines, so that 
A. williamsana appears to be something quite distinct. My collections from 
Osceola, however, contain a number of specimens which, on the one hand 
appear to be identical with A. willzamsana but which I should be tempted to 
identify with A. pustulifera on the hypothesis that the original figures, even 
though they are photographic, do not fully or accurately portray the specific 
characters. My specimens, however, did not come from the same horizon 
as Doctor Moore’s, a circumstance that may vitiate the fact that they came 
from the same locality. Moore did not describe the brachial valve of A. 
pustulifera so that the factors of identification are thereby much reduced. 

Horizon and locality: Boone limestone (in beds of Keokuk age); Joplin, 
Missouri (station 1301A). 


x 
4 
4 
% 
5 
% 
> 
¥ 
g 
+ 
4 
4 
j 


Figs. 1-19. For explanation, see page 397 


oct, 4, 1931 MARSH: COPEPOD GENERA 397 


DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES 


Schizophoria peculiaris n. sp. 

Figs. 1-4. Different views of one of three cotypes. Fig. 3 is of the natural size; 
the others are enlarged to about 3 diameters. Hueco limestone; Marble Canyon, 
east face of Diablo Plateau, Hudspeth County, Texas, (Station 6681). 

Pustula palmeri n. sp.- aA 

Figs. 5-10. Different views of 3 cotypes, figs. 58 representing one specimen, fig. 9 
another, and fig. 10athird. Fig. 7 is of the natural size; the others are enlarged 
to about 3 diameters. Cherokee shale; mine dumps near Joplin, Mo. 

Pustula keytei n. sp. + 

Figs. 11-14. Different views of two cotypes, all X3. Figs. 11-13 represent one 
specimen, fig. 14another. Glen Eyrie shale member of the Fountain formation; 
Glen Eyrie, El Paso County, Colorado. 

Avonia williamsana n. sp. 

Figs. 15-19. Different views of 3 out of 7 cotypes. Figs. 15-17 represent one speci- 
men, fig. 15 being an enlargement to two diameters. Fig. 18 represents an 
external mold of a brachial valve X2. Some of the holes made by the small 
spines are here shown. Fig. 19 represents a pedicle valve, X2. This specimen 
like the original of fig. 15 is practically an internal mold. Cherty beds of the 
Boone limestone; Joplin, Mo., (Station 1301A). 


ZOOLOGY .—The copepod genera Broteas Lovén, Paradiaptomus Sars, 
Lovenula Schmeil, Metadiaptomus Methuen, and Adiaptomus 
Cooper.!. C. DwicHt Marsu, Bureau of Animal Industry. 

In connection with a study of Diaptomus it became necessary to 
determine somewhat clearly: what species should be separated from 
Diaptomus and referred to the proposed genera Broteas, Paradiapto- 
mus, Lovenula, Metadiaptomus, and Adiaptomus. It was found diffi- 
cult to get from the authors who have used these names any method of 
determining by a few characters the generic limits of these proposed 
divisions of the Diaptomidae. Gurney, 1929, discussed the matter 
somewhat elaborately, but did not make clear a practical method of 
separating the genera. ‘This led the writer to go over the literature to 
see if he could find out how the authors used these names and whether 
it might be possible, in some fairly simple way, to make diagnoses of 
the genera. This was necessarily nothing but a study of the litera- 
ture, as no material of these forms was available for examination. 
Such a critical study is always difficult because many published de- 
scriptions are incomplete and there is always a possibility, especially 
in the examination of minute structures, that there may be mistakes of 
observation, in making sketches, or of interpretation. When there is 
a discrepancy between authors, it may be assumed that the later author 
is right, although, of course, this would not always be true. 

In 1847 Lovén proposed the generic name Broteas for a South African 
copepod giving a somewhat elaborate description with figures. This 


1 Received August 3, 1931. 


398 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 16 


differed from the recognized characteristics of Diaptomus in that the 
female abdomen was composed of two segments instead of three, the 
maxillipeds were long and powerful instead of rather weak and incon- 
spicuous, the endopodites of the swimming feet were all two-segmented, 
while in Diaptomus the endopodites of the first feet are two-segmented 
and of the second, third, and fourth three-segmented, and the first 
antennae contained 27 segments instead of 25. The exopodite of the 
left 5th foot of the male was armed with a conspicuous hook, appar- 
ently terminal, and an acute spine. 

In 1895 Sars described Paradiaptomus lamellatus, proposing the new 
genus Paradiaptomus. ‘This, like Broteas, has two-segmented female 
abdomen and long and powerful maxillipeds; the endopodite of the 
maxilliped consisted of three segments instead of five as in Diaptomus. 
The swimming feet were like Diaptomus,—first foot two-segmented 
and the others of three segments. The exopodite of the left 5th foot 
of the male was armed with three spines. 

In Giesbrecht and Schmeil, 1899, Schmeil proposed Lovenula in 
place of Broteas, since Broteas was preoccupied. His description was 
practically lke that of Lovén, but he added that the endopodite of 
the maxilliped consisted of three segments. Thus the main distinc- 
tion between Lovenula Schmeil, or Broteas Lovén, and Paradiaptomus 
Sars was that the endopodites of the swimming feet of Lovenula have 
two segments, while those in Paradiaptomus Sars are like those in Diap- 
tomus, two-segmented in the first, and three-segmented in the others. 
Giesbrecht and Schmeil, 1898, diagnosed Paradiaptomus in accordance 
with the description of Sars as having the two-segmented female abdo- 
men and three-segmented endopodite of the maxilliped as in Lovenula 
and the segmentation of the endopodites of the swimming feet as in 
Diaptomus. 7 

Sars in 1899, from some collections in which he recognized, as he 
thought, the original species of Lovén, published a detailed descrip- 
tion under the title ‘‘On the Genus Broteas of Lovén with Description 
of the Type Species: Broteas falcifer Lovén:” this description was 
accompanied with rather elaborate illustrations. He stated that 
Lovén was doubtless in error in the number of antennal segments which 
are 25 instead of 27. The last segment of the right antenna bears a 
small hook. The swimming feet, instead of having two-segmented 
endopodites, are like those in Diaptomus. He considered that these 
facts make Broteas identical with his Paradiaptomus and, as Paradiap- 
tomus is the more recent name, he made it a synonym of Broteas. 


oct. 4, 1931 MARSH: COPEPOD GENERA 399 


Van Douwe, 1912, made some criticisms of preceding descriptions, 
but stated nothing that adds to our knowledge of the generic dis- 
tinctions. 

Gurney, 1904, in his description of “‘Lovenula mea’ which is now 
considered identical with Paradiaptomus falcifer stated that the endo- 
podites of the maxillipeds were four-segmented. 

Brady, 1913, considered that Paradiaptomus should be used to 
include Broteas and Lovenula. 

Grochmalicki, 1913, made Paradiaptomus Sars a synonym of 
Lovenula Schmeil, and listed 3 species of Lovenula, L. falcifera Loven, 
L. lamellata Sars, and L. mea Gurney. He added another species, 
L. stolzmanni. 

Riihe, 1921, stated positively that the endopodite of the maxilliped 
of Paradiaptomus has five segments. Rihe claimed that Sars was in 
error in regard to the left fifth foot of the male; he stated that two 
spines are borne on the external margin of the second segment of the 
exopodite and a hyaline lamella on the internal margin; that there is a 
definite line separating the first and second segments which leave the 
spines on the second segment. Both Sars and Riihe make the left 
exopodite two-segmented, but they differ in the location of the division. 

Sars, 1927, published descriptions of Lovenula falcifera and L. 
barnardi, and revived the genus name Paradiaptomus for L. lamellatus. 
In both Lovenula and Paradiaptomus he found the swimming feet like 
Diaptomus, the two-segmented female abdomen, and the endopodites 
of the maxillipeds five-segmented. He made Paradiaptomus somewhat 
different in form from Lovenula, the maxillipeds less powerfully de- 
veloped, and no hook on the ultimate segment of the right male 
antenna. 

Brehm, 1927, stated that the family Diaptomidae has only two 
genera, Paradiaptomus and Diaptomus, evidently discarding Broteas 
and Lovenula. 

In 1906 Cooper proposed the name Adiaptomus for a species which 
he named A. natalensis. He stated that it has antennae of 26 segments, 
female abdomen of 2 segments, and his figure shows the male fifth 
foot of the same general form as that found in Lovenula Schmeil. The 
endopodites of the maxillipeds are three-segmented, and the swimming 
feet are like Diaptomus. There seems to be no reason for separating 
Adiaptomus from Lovenula except the 26-segmented antennae and 
possibly there was a mistake about this. 

Metadiaptomus was proposed by Methuen in 1910 with the type 
species M. transvallensis. The antennae are of 26 segments, as stated 


400 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 16 


for Adiaptomus. The female abdomen is three-segmented. The 
swimming feet are like Diaptomus. In-the male fifth feet, fig. 3, the 
second basal segment of the right foot is very much enlarged on the 
inner border, and this border and part of the dorsal surface is spinose. 
The left exopodite of the male fifth foot is one- or possibly two-seg- 
mented and bears two processes, a strong curved spine on the dorsal 
surface which, in the type species, is nearly as long as the whole exopo- 
dite, and a small terminal spine. 

Gurney, 1929, recognized the two genera Paradiaptomus and Meta- 
diaptomus, dividing Paradiaptomus into a Paradiaptomus and a 
Lovenula series. 

The various ideas about the genera are summarized in Table 1. 
Diaptomus is added for comparison. : 

It appears that the original descriptions of Broteas and Lovenula 
made them differ from Diaptomus in the prominence of the maxillipeds, 
the segmentation of the swimming feet, the female abdomen, and the 
endopodite of the maxilliped. Paradiaptomus Sars 1895 differs from 
Broteas Lovén and Lovenula Schmeil in having the swimming feet 
like those of Diaptomus, and in the structure of the exopodite of the 
left 5th foot of the male. In regard to the segmentation of the endo- 
podite of the maxilliped there has been a progressive change in authors’ 
statements, the more recent making it five, like Diaptomus. If we 
assume, as one naturally would, that the later authors are more cor- 
rect, it is probable that we should consider that this segmentation is 
five. It appears, however, that while the division of this endopodite 
in Diaptomus is clearly in five segments they are not so clearly marked 
in the other genera and hence have been sometimes overlooked. ‘The 
maxilliped is highly developed and conspicuous in Paradiaptomus, 
Lovenula, and Broteas, and inconspicuous in Diaptomus and Metadi- 
aptomus. ‘There is a small hook on the ultimate segment of the right 
male antenna in Broteas and Lovenula of Sars and Paradiaptomus of 
Gurney. 

The female abdomen in Broteas, Paradiaptomus, Lovenula, and 
Adiaptomus is 2-segmented, while in Diaptomus and Metadiaptomus 
it is 3-segmented. This is not a hard and fast distinction, however, for 
a few species of Diaptomus have 2-segmented abdomens. Sars writes 
of some Diaptomi in which the female abdomen has the last two seg- 
ments ‘‘confluent.”’ One might raise the question whether, in such 
cases, if they were ‘‘confluent,”’ it might not be better to consider the 
abdomen to be two-segmented. 


oct. 4, 1931 MARSH: COPEPOD GENERA 401 


There are differences in the male fifth feet which help materially in 
distinguishing the genera. As shown in the copy of Sars’ figure of 
the fifth feet of Broteas falcifer (Fig. 1), which now should be called 
Lovenula, the left exopodite has a well developed terminal hook and 
an acute spine. The left endopodite is either lacking or rudimentary. 


TABLE 1. Summary or CHARACTERS 


Armature left 
Swimming feet F crate Endop. Maxilliped ULE see inale endop. of male 


seyret 5th ft. 
Broteas Loven 1847] 1-4, 2 seg. | 2 seg. Hook & acute 
spine. 
Paradiaptomus 1, 2 seg. Prominent, 3stout spines. 
Sars 1895 2-4, 3 seg. | 2 seg. | Endop. 3 seg. : 
Lovenula Schmeil | 1-4, 2 seg.| 2 seg. | Prominent, Hook & acute 
1898 Endop. 3 seg. spine. 
Paradiaptomus 1898} 1-2 seg. Prominent, 3 spines. 
2-4, 3 seg. | 2 seg. | Endop. 3 seg. 
Broteas Sars 1899 24, 3 seg. | 2 seg. | Prominent, Ter. hook. | Hook & acute 
. Endop. 3 seg. spine. 
Lovenula Gurney Prominent, Hook & acute 
1904 Endop. 4 seg. spine. 
Paradiaptomus 2 seg. Hook & acute 
Brady 1913 spine. 
Paradiaptomus Prominent, 2 spines & hy- 
Rithe 1921 _ | Endop. 5 seg. aline lam. 
Lovenula Sars 1927 | 2-4, 3 seg. | 2 seg. | Prominent, Ter. hook | Hook & acute 
Endop. 4 seg. spine. 
Paradiaptomus 1927 | 2-4, 3 seg. Prominent, 3 spines. 
Endop. 4 seg. 
Paradiaptomus, in- 2 seg. | Prominent, Ter. hook 
cluding Love- Endop. 5 seg. 
nula, Gurney 
1929 
Adiaptomus Cooper| 24, 3 seg.| 2 seg. | Endop. 3 seg. Hook & spine. 
1906 
Metadiaptomus 2-4, 3 seg. | 3 seg. Large curved 
Methuen 1910 spine on 
posterior 
Suntace. 
Small spine 
near end. 
Diaptomus 2-4, 3 seg. | 3 seg. | Not prominent 
Endop. 5 seg. 


Paradiaptomus Sars, as shown in his figure of P. lamellatus (Fig. 2) 
has a distinct left endopodite and the exopodite is armed either with 
three rather stout spines, as stated by Sars, or with two spines and a 
hyaline lamella according to Rite. 


402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 16 


Adiaptomus has male fifth feet like Lovenula. Metadiaptomus, as 
shown in the figure from Methuen of M. transvaalensis (Fig. 3), has a 
stout curved spine on the posterior face of the exopodite and a smaller 
terminal spine. In addition, the second basal segment of the right 
foot is much enlarged on the inner side and the inner border and part 
of the posterior surface is armed with spinules. 

The following suggestion then is made for distinguishing between 
these genera: 

Lovenula Schmeil has 2-segmented female abdomen, prominent 
maxillipeds, the left exopodite of the male fifth foot armed with a 
terminal hook and an acute spine. 


1 2 


Fig. 1. Fifth foot of male of Lovenula falcifera. After Sars. 
Fig. 2. Fifth foot of male of Paradiaptomus lamellatus. After Sars. 
Fig. 3. Fifth foot of male of Metadiaptomus transvaalensis. After Methuen. 


Paradiaptomus Sars has 2-segmented female abdomen, prominent 
maxillipeds, the left exopodite of the male fifth root armed with 2 
stout spines and a hyaline lamella. | 

Metadiaptomus has 3-segmented female abdomen, maxillipeds not 
prominent, the left exopodite of the male fifth foot armed with a curved 
spine on the posterior surface and a small terminal spine. The second 
basipodite of the right male fifth foot is enlarged on the inner side and 
spinulose. 

Adiaptomus is a synonym of Lovenula. 

Lovenula will include Broteas falcifer Loven 1847, Lovenula excellens 
Kiefer 1921, Adiaptomus natalensis Cooper 1906, Diaptomus boumerr 
Daday 1910, Paradiaptomus biramata Lowndes 1930, P. biramata 
Riithe 1921, P. biramata Van Douwe 1912, Broteds falcifer Sars 1899, 


oct. 4, 1931 MARSH: COPEPOD GENERA 403 


Lovenula falcifera Sars 1927, L. barnardi Sars 1927, Paradiaptomus 
faleifer Brady 1913, Lovenula Giesbrecht & Schmeil 1898, Broteas 
falcifer Metheun 1910, Lovenula mea Gurney 1904, Diaptomus africanus 
Daday 1908, D. aethiopicus Daday 1908, Lovenula simplex Kiefer 
1929, Diaptomus pictus Brady 1913 (which as suggested by Gurney 
1929 is probably a synonym of Cooper’s Adiaptomus natalensis), and 
possibly Diaptomus alluaudi DeGuerne & Richard 1890 (but female 
has 3-segmented abdomen). 

Paradiaptomus will include Paradiaptomus lamellatus Sars 1895, 
P. lamellatus Rithe 1921, P. lamellatus Giesbrecht & Schmeil 1898, 
Broteas lamellatus Sars 1899, Paradiaptomus lamellatus Sars 1927, 
and Lovenula stolemanni Grochmalicki 1913. 

Metadiaptomus will include M. transvaalensis Methuen 1910, Para- 
diaptomus transvaalensis Kiefer 1929, Paradiaptomus colonialis Kiefer 
1928, Diaptomus meridianus Van Douwe 1912, D. mascalus Brady 1913, 
D. capensis Sars 1901, D. purcelli Sars 1901, D. chevreuxi De Guerne & 
Richard 1894, D. allwaudi De Guerne & Richard 1890, D. rigidus Sars 
1927, Probably D. asiaticus Uljanin 1875, D. rehmanni Grock 1918, 
and D. tibetanus Daday 1908. 

Diaptomus greent Gurney 1907, called Paradiaptomus greent Gurney 
1931, and the two species described by Van Douwe 1912 as Paradiap- 
tomus schultzer and P. similis, are considered as probably Diaptoma. 
Gurney 1907 stdted that the female abdomen in D. greeni was 3- 
segmented. Van Douwe stated that the female abdomen was 2- 
segmented in Paradiaptomus schultzet and P. similis. Gurney, 1931, 
reported as the result of an examination of new material of P. similis 
that the female abdomen is 3-segmented: this would be presumptive 
evidence that these forms should be considered as Diaptomi. It seems 
probable, moreover, that P. schultzet and P. svmilis are not specifically 
distinct and should be considered as synonymous. 

As pointed out by Gurney, 1929, it is sometimes difficult to separate 
these genera. The typical large, curved spine on the posterior surface 
of the exopodite of the male fifth foot in Metadiaptomus may be much 
smaller in some species and may be found more distad on the exopodite 
until it is sometimes difficult to decide whether it should be considered 
as located on the posterior surface or as terminal. That is, the termi- 
nal hook of Lovenula is doubtless homologous with the curved spine of 
Metadiaptomus. Probably it is also homologous with the ‘‘external”’ 
spine of Paradiaptomus. 


404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 16 


LITERATURE CITED 


Brapy, G. S. 1913. On freshwater Entomostraca from various parts of South Africa. 
Ann. Natal Mus., vol. 2, pt. 4, pp. 459-584. 

BreuM, V. 1927. Ordnung der Crustacea Entomostraca. Handbuch der Zoologie. 
Kiikenthal & Krumbach. 3rd Bd. 4 Lief. pp. 435-496. 

CoopEerR, ARNOLD W. 1906. Notes ona new species of Gymnoplea from Richmond, Natal, 
South Africa; Adiaptomus natalensis (gen et sp. nov.). Ann. Natal Govern. 
Mus. 1, p. 97-103, 1 pl. 

Dapay, E. von. 1908. Entomostraca et Hydrachnidae e Tibet. Records of the Indian 
Mus., Calcutta, 2, 1908-1909: 323-341, 9 figs. 

—— 1908. Adatok német-Kelet-Afrika Edesvici mikrofaundjénak ismeretéhez. Math. 
Termés. Erteseté. 26-43-57. ? 

—— 1910. Species aliquot novae Entomostracorum. Arch. zool. Budapest, Vol. 1, p. 
187-195, 3 tab. 

Van Dovuwet, Cary. 1912. Copepoda. Neue Stisswasser-Copepoden aus Sitidafrica. 
Zoolog. und Anthropol. Ergebnisse einer Forschungreise im westlichen u. zen- 
tralen Stidafrica in den Jahre 1903-1905 von Dr. Leonard Schultze. Bd. 5. 
Syst. & Tiergeog. Lief. 1, pp. 23-32, 1 pl. 

GIESBRECHT, W. UND O. ScHMEIL. 1899. Copepoda. I. Gymnoplea. Das Tierreich 
Lief. 6, XVI, 169 pp., 31 figs. 

GROCHMALICKI, J. 1913. Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der Stisswasserfauna Ostafrikas. Anz. 
der Akad. Wiss. Kraku, Math-naturw. KI. Reihe B. Nr. 7 B, 2 Taf., 1913, pp. 
517-537. 

Dr GuERNE & Ricuarp. 1890. Diagnose d’un Diaptomus nouveau du Congo. Descrip- 
tion du Diaptomus alluaudi, n. sp. recuelli par M. Alluaud dans un réservoir 
d’eau douce a Lanzarote (Canaries), in: Bull. Soc. zool. France, Vol. 15, p. 
198-200. 

—— 1894. Diaptomus chevreuxi, Copépode nouveau d’Algérie. Avec 5 fig. Bull. 
Soc. zool. France, T. 19, p. 176-179, figs. 1-5. 

GurRneEyY, R. 1904. Onasmall collection of freshwater Entomostraca from South Africa. 
Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. II, pp. 298-301. . 

—— 1907. On two new Entomostraca from Ceylon. Spolia Zeylanica Vol. 4, pp. 126- 
134, 2 pls. 

—— 1929. Notes on the Diaptomidae of South Africa. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 4, pp. 
572-584. 

—— 1931. A species of fresh-water Copepod, Paradiaptomus greeni Gurney, common to 
South Africa, Ceylon, and India. Zool. Anz. 92 (11/12) pp. 301-303, figs. 


1-5. 
KigFrerR, FriepRIcH. 1928. Beitrdge zur Copepodenkunde. Zool. Anz. Bd. 76, Heft 
1/2, pp. 5-18. 


— 1929. Neue und wenig bekannte Stisswasser-Copenoden aus Stidafrika. Zool. 
Anz. 15 Marz 1929. Bd. 80, heft 10/12, pp. 309-310. 

Lovin, L. 1847. Fyra nya arter af Sétwatters-Crustaceen fron Sédra Afrika. Kongl. 
Vet. Akad. Handl. 1845, pp. 427-439, Taf. III-VI. 
Lownpgs, A.G. 1930. Freshwater Copepoda from Abyssinia collected by Mr. J. Omer- 
Cooper. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. Part I, 1930, pp. 161-179. 4 pls. 
MeEtTHUEN, Paut A. 1910. On a collection of freshwater Crustacea from the Transvaal. 
Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1910 p. 148-166, 11 pls., 2 figs. 

Rtue, F.E. 1921. Die Stisswassercrustaceen der deutschen Stidpolar-Expedition 1901- 
1903 mit Ausschluss der Ostracoden. Deutsch. Siidpol. Ex. 1901-1903. XVI 
Bd., Zool. VIII Bd. Pp. 5-66. 


ocT. 4, 1931 PRICE: METAGONIMOIDES OREGONENSIS 405 


Sars, G.O. 1895. On some South African Entomostraca raised from dried mud. Skrift. 
Vidensk. Selsk. Christiania, 1895, No. 8, p. 1; 1-56. 

— 1899. On the genus Broteas of Lovén, with description of the type species: Broteas 
faleifer Lov. Arch. Math. og Naturvid. Kristiania, 21: pp. 1-27, pl. IV. 

—— 1907. Ontwo new species of the genus Diaptomus from South Africa. Arch. Math. 
Nat. Kristiania Bd. 28, No. 8, 17 pp., 2 pls. 

—— 1927. The fresh-water Entomostraca of the Cape Province (Union of South Africa). 
Ann. South Afric. Mus. Vol. 25, p. 85-149, 12 pls. 

Uusanin, W.N. 1875. Crustacea of Turkestan. Part I. 


ZOOLOGY .—Metagonimoides oregonensis, a new trematode from a 
raccoon... EMMETT W. Pricer, Bureau of Animal Industry, United 
States Department of Agriculture. (Communicated by ELoIsE 
B. Cram.) 

Among some specimens recently referred to the writer by Dr. D. 
Sinitsin were a few specimens of a trematode which had been collected 
by Dr. J. N. Shaw, Oregon State College, Corvallis, Oregon, from the 
intestine of a raccoon. ‘This fluke is closely related to species of the 
heterophyid genus Metagonimus Katsurada, but differs from them in 
certain characters which are regarded as sufficient to warrant the erec- 
tion of anew genus. For this form the name Metagonimordes oregonen- 
sis. N.g., N. Sp., is proposed. 


Metagonimoides new genus. 


Generic diagnosis.—Heterophyidae: Body piriform in outline, strongly 
flattened dorso-ventrally. Oral sucker terminal; acetabulum well developed, 
lateral, directed antero-medially, and opening into a shallow genital sinus as in 
Metagonimus. Seminal vesicle slender and showing several constrictions. 
Testes oval, situated opposite each other at posterior end of body. Ovary 
irregular in shape, pretesticular, slightly to right of median line; seminal re- 
ceptacle well developed; Laurer’s canal present. Vitellaria lateral, extending 
from level of base of pharynx to posterior end of body. Uterus S-shaped, 
never extending caudad of ovary. Excretory vesicle Y-shaped, with short, 
wide stem and relatively short branches. Parasitic in intestinal tract of 
mammals. 

Type species.—Metagonimoides oregonensis new species. 


Metagonimoides oregonensis new species. 


Figs. 1, 2. 


Description.—Metagonimoides: Body piriform in outline, 589 to 688u long 
by 573 to 852u wide, strongly flattened dorso-ventrally. The cuticle is missing 
in all specimens available and it is not possible to determine whether spines 
are present or not. Oral sucker cup-shaped, 93 to 114y in diameter, terminal 


1 Received August 3, 1931. 


406 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 16 


in position, and with its aperture slightly subterminal; prepharynx very short; 
pharynx strongly muscular, 77 to 109u long by 46 to 93u wide; esophagus 
short and slender; intestinal caeca slender and extending to posterior end of 
body. Acetabulum 124 to 233u in diameter, situated in equatorial zone at 
right side of body, its aperture directed antero-medially and opening into a 
shallow genital sinus. Opening of genital sinus irregular and with two papilla- 
like ridges projecting into sinus, the larger of these ridges situated at postero- 
median border and the smaller situated at anterior margin. These structures 
have been interpreted by Witenberg’ as a modified gonotyl or so-called genital 


DFT 


Fig. 1.—Metagonimoides oregonensis Price. Dorsal view. 


sucker. No cirrus pouch present. Seminal vesicle slender, shaped somewhat 
like a transversely placed interrogation mark, and lying dorsal to uterus in 
left lateral field. Hemaphroditic duct opens into genital sinus at base of 
anterior ridge-like papilla. Testes oval, 112 to 150u by 150 to 200u, and 
situated opposite each other in posterior part of body, their median border 
being separated by the stem of excretory vesicle. Ovary more or less irregu- 
lar in outline, at posterior border of acetabulum in some specimens and median 


2G. WITENBERG. Studies on the trematode-family Heterophyidae. Ann. Trop. M. 
and Parasit., Liverpool. 23: 131-239, figs. 1-33. 1929. 


oct. 4, 1931 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 407 


to it in others; Laurer’s canal present. Vitellaria lateral and composed of 
medium sized follicles which extend from level of posterior end of pharynx 
to posterior end of body; they are separated anteriorly and posteriorly by a 
narrow space. Uterus relatively short and forming a low S-shaped loop 
which lies chiefly in left lateral field; it does not extend caudad of ovary as in 
the case of Metagonimus. Eggs oval, 33u long by 18u wide, golden yellow in 
color. Excretory vesicle Y-shaped, with wide stem and relatively short, 
slender branches; excretory pore terminal. 

Host.—Procyon lotor. 

Location.—Small intestine. 

Distribution — United States (Corvallis, Oregon). 

Specimens —U. 8S. National Museum Helminthological Collection No. 
30862 (type and paratypes). 


sea SeGth SRE eT 
qeeemugsaeesees 
4 <> a: 2 


yee eas 


Ps os 


> 
BPs 


Fig. 2. 
view. 


Metagonimoides oregonensis Price. Acetabulum and genital sinus. Ventral 


This trematode is distinguished from species of Metagonimus (M. yoko- 
gawaz (Katsurada), and M. ciwreanus (Witenberg) ( = Dexiogonimus ciureanus 
Witenberg) by the distribution of the vitellaria and the course of the uterus. 
In Metagonimus the vitellaria do not extend anteriorly beyond the ovarial 
zone and the uterine coils extend caudad of the ovary and seminal receptacle, 
while in Metagonzmozdes the vitellaria extend as far anteriorly as the pharynx 
and the uterine coils do not extend caudad of the ovary and seminal re- 
ceptacle. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


SIXTEENTH INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGICAL CONGRESS 


According to a circular letter recently issued by the committee on or- 
ganization of the International Geological Congress, the sixteenth session 
will meet in Washington in June, 1933. The following topics for discussion 
have been proposed: 


Measurement of geologic time by any method. 
Batholiths and related intrusives. 

Zonal relations of metalliferous deposits. 
Major divisions of the Paleozoic system. 


408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 16 


Geomorphogenic processes in arid regions and their resulting forms and products. 
Fossil man and contemporary faunas. 
Orogenesis. 


It is planned to offer the following excursions before the sessions: 


A-1. An 11-day tour of eastern New York and western New England by bus, starting 
from New York City. 

A-2. A 12-day tour of the mining districts of the southern Appalachians and the 
Mississippi Valley by special train from Washington. 

A-3. A 10-day trip by bus through the Appalachian Valley in Virginia and portions 
of bordering States, from Washington. 

A-4. A 10- or 11-day tour of northern New York by bus, from Albany. 

A-5. A 10-day trip by boat to classic Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Pleistocene localities 
on Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay, from Washington. 

A-6. An 1i-day trip by train from Washington to the oil fields of Oklahoma and 
Texas. 

A-7. A 5-day trip by bus from New York to Washington, primarily for geomorpho- 
logists. 

A-8. A 4- or 5-day trip from New York to Washington by bus, primarily for economic 
geologists. 


A-9. A transcontinental excursion, lasting 12 or 14 days, from San Francisco to 
Washington. 
There will also be a series of 12 short excursions of one or two days length, starting 


from New York. Some of these will be offered before and others after the ‘‘A”’ series of 
excursions. 


It is proposed to devote three days during the session to short excursions 
to points of interest near Washington. 
The following excursions after the session are planned: 


C-1. A transcontinental excursion by special train from Washington, 35 days. The 
major features of this excursion will be a series of side trips, generally by bus, to points 
of particular interest. 

C-2. A transcontinental excursion by train from Washington, 35 days. This excur- 
sion has been planned so as to give a general cross section of the geology of the United 
States. The main emphasis is on regional and structural geology, physiography, and 
Tertiary stratigraphy, including volcanics. ; 

C-3. A 10-day excursion by train to Chicago, thence by bus, to study the glacial 
geology of the Central States. 

C-4. A 10- or 11-day excursion to the iron and copper deposits of the Lake Superior 
region. 

C-5. A 35-day transcontinental excursion from New York or Washington to San 
Francisco by airplane with return by train, primarily for geomorphologists. 


Copies of the circular, which contains detailed information regarding these 
excursions, may be obtained from the General Secretary, Sixteenth Inter- 
national Geological Congress, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. 


OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS 
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND 


AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS 


Tuesday, October 6 
Wednesday, October 7 


Thursday, October 8 
Saturday, October 10 
Tuesday, October 13 
Wednesday, October 14 


Thursday, October 15 
Saturday, October 17 


The Botanical Society 

The Washington Society of Engineers 
The Medical Society 

The Chemical Society 

The Philosophical Society 

The American Institute of Electrical Engineers 
The Geological Society 

The Medical Society 

The Academy 

The Biological Society 

The Helminthological Society 


The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if 
sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month. 


OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY 


President: N. A. Coss, Bureau of Plant Industry. 

Corresponding Secretary: Pau E. Howe, Bureau of Animal Industry. 
Recording Secretary: CHARLES THom, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. 
Treasurer: Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 


CONTENTS 


ORIGINAL PAPERS 


Page 

Population analysis.—The extinction of families—I. Aurrep J. LorKa.......... 377 
Physical chemistry.—The cubic compressibility of certain substances. L. H. 

Apams and R. E. Grpson.............. PC a .. 381 

Paleontology.—New Carboniferous invertebrates—III. Grorer H. Grrty....... 390 


Zoology.—The copepod genera Broteas Lovén, Paradiaptomus Sars, Lovenula 
Schmeil, Metadiaptomus Methuen, and Adiaptomus Cooper. C. DwiantMarsu. 397 


Zoology.—Metagonimoides oregonensis, a new trematode from a raccoon. EmMert 
WisPBICm, 5. os sce chek sawn ope bela os Hae Sw cate Oi neat Gee ee 405 


Screnraic Norns AND NEWS 2 oboe ee a a ee 407 


This JouURNAL is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. 


Voi. gi = OcToBER 19, 1931 No. 17 


: 


ing 


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Ee Ynys a 
ON ag Joo r 
~> a _~\ 
MSG Ae. 


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WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES ° 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


C. Wytue Cooke CHARLES DRECHSLER Huaea L. DrypENn 
Uv. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OF STANDARDS 


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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
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CHEMICAL SOCIETY 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vor. 21 OcToBER 19, 1931 Novi? 


CHEMISTRY .—Further studies of kolm.1 R. C. Weis and R. E. 
StEvENS, U. 8. Geological Survey. 


INTRODUCTION 


Swedish kolm, a material resembling oil shale, has recently become 
of special interest as one of the very few substances whose age can be 
determined both from fossils and from the lead-uranium ratio. In- 
terest in this material has been stimulated by Professor A. C. Lane, 
Chairman of the National Research Committee on the Measurement 
of Geologic Time by Atomic Disintegration, through whose efforts 
various studies have been made of it, including those described in 
this paper. One of the significant results is that the lead extracted 
from the kolm is the purest uranium lead so far found; its atomic weight 
determined at Harvard by Baxter and Bliss? is 206.008, whereas that 
of ordinary lead is 207.218. 

According to Sjogren? kolm was known to Cronstedt as early as 
1758. It occurs in limestone and alum shale quarries in the form 
of ellipsoidal nodules several decimeters thick. It was studied chem- 
ically by Nordenskidld,* who also sent a sample to Prof. Winkler at 
Freiberg in 1901. Winkler found the combustible contents of the 
kolm to occur in the same proportions as in anthracite (about 5 per 
cent O, 88 per cent C, and 7 per cent H). He also confirmed the pres- 
ence of free nitrogen (0.50 per cent). ‘The ash consisted mostly of 
S10,, Al,O;, and Fe.O;:, with small quantities of MnO, MgO, CaO, 
alkalies, and U;0s. Nordenskidld had earlier found sulphur, uranium, 
and small proportions of nickel, cobalt, copper, molybdenum, vana- 
dium, and the cerium and gadolinium earths. Miss Naima Sahlbom, 


1 Published with the permission of the Acting Director, U. S. Geological Survey. 
Received August 26, 1931. 
? Baxter and Bliss. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 52: 4848. 1930. 
3 Hj. Sjogren. Arkiv. Kemi, Mineral. och. geol., Stockholm, 1905, Band 2, Hafte 
dD, pp. 1-6. 
* Nordenskidld. Compt. rend. 120: 859. 1895. Oh oO ee) 
409 


4 


410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 17 


assistant to Sjogren, identified barium, lead, tin, and lithium in 
the kolm. 

Our sample of kolm, which was received through Professor A. H. 
Westergaard, was “collected from the middle and lower parts of the 
Peltura beds of the shale quarry of Gullhogen near Skovde in the 
province of Westergotland. These beds we consider to be of Cambrian 
age. Undoubtedly they are of pre-Ordovician age, as the overlying 
bed is formed by alum shale with Dictyonema flabelliforme Elchw.” 
The beds are therefore of Upper Cambrian age. 

Some of this material gave roughly 1.8 per cent moisture, 29.5 
volatile matter, 43.6 fixed carbon, and 35.1 ash, according to the U. 8. 
Bureau of Mines. Mr. M. F. Connor kindly determined the approxi- 
mate composition of the ash to be SiO, 48.68 per cent, Al,O; 20.34, 
Fe,O; 20.00, CaO 0.90, MgO 1.40, Na.O 0.60, K.O 5.84, SO; 0.62, 
TiO, 0.20, P.O; 0.15, undetermined 1.27, with S in the kolm 4.74, 
and Fe 3.85, as pyrite. Later tests (by R. C. Wells) showed about 
0.003 per cent V2O;, referred to the kolm, about 0.04 ZnO, 0.13 rare 
earths, 0.013 Mo, 0.003 MnO, 0.004 NiO and no Zr, Be, or Th. The 
ash was 31.25 per cent of the weight of the kolm used in the final work. 
Bismuth and cobalt were not noted, though they might have been 
present. Titanium and phosphorus were not mentioned by Sjogren. 

The uranium in the kolm is supposed by Lindgren to have been 
segregated by organisms. It appears to be free from thorium. Its 
percentage was carefully determined by Mauzelius.’ Later deter- 
minations with the electroscope by one of us, also by 8. C. Lind, R. B. 
Moore, and Herman Schlundt, who used the emanation method, 
indicated somewhat less uranium than that found in the regular 
analytical way. The cause of this slight discrepancy is not yet entirely 
clear. Part of the difficulty, however, may consist of freeing the ura- 
nium entirely from silica and alumina, or, if the cupferron or titration 
methods are used, of avoiding the presence of zinc or overreducing 
the uranium solution previous to titration. 


ANALYTICAL DETERMINATIONS 


The principal object of the analytical work was to determine the 
age of the kolm from the ratio of lead to uranium. As the percentages 
were small this work was very laborious and time consuming. In 
general the method consisted of (1) getting all the lead in one portion, 
(2) all the uranium in another portion, and (3) separating each in a 
pure and determinable form. The method finally used was as follows: 


5 R. Mauselins. Tekn. Tidskr., Upp]. C, Kemi och Bergvet, H. 2, 1914. 


oct. 19, 1931 WELLS AND STEVENS: KOLM 411 


About 50 grams of a large finely powdered uniform sample (originally pre- 
pared by R. B. Moore) was gently ignited in a platinum dish. The ash was 
treated with water, about 23 ml. of sulphuric acid, and an excess of hydro- 
fluoric acid and evaporated to fumes. The residue was dissolved in water and 
again heated to fumes. It was then again dissolved, transferred to a flask, 
made up to 500 ml., saturated with hydrogen sulphide, heated, cooled, again 
saturated with hydrogen sulphide, and allowed to stand at least overnight. 
The solution was then filtered and the precipitate well washed with water con- 
taining hydrogen sulphide, whereby all the lead was separated in the impure 
precipitate from all the uranium in the filtrate with most of the iron and alumi- 
num. 

The precipitate containing the lead sulphide was extracted on the filter 
paper with hot dilute hydrochloric and nitric acids and the solution set on the 
steam bath to evaporate. The insoluble part, after gently burning off the 
filter paper, was fused with sodium carbonate, leached with water, and the 
solution filtered and discarded. The precipitate was dissolved in hot dilute 
hydrochloric acid, nearly neutralized with sodium carbonate with litmus 
paper, and heated just to boiling, whereby much of the titanium was pre- 
cipitated almost free from lead. This was filtered off and the lead in the 
filtrate precipitated with hydrogen sulphide as before, finally dissolved, and 
added to the main solution of lead nitrate. The titanium precipitate was 
reworked by the sulphate method to recover the small quantity of lead in it. 
All the filter papers used were finally ignited, the ash fused with sodium car- 
bonate, and any lead present recovered in the usual way. ‘The final solution 
containing all the lead was heated to fumes with a small excess, 0.2 or 0.4 
gram, of sulphuric acid, diluted about 20 times, allowed to stand overnight, 
and filtered, whereby molybdenum and copper were removed. The lead 
sulphate was then dissolved in hot ammonium acetate solution and the solu- 
tion allowed to stand overnight and filtered. After collecting traces of lead 
from all remaining ignited filter papers by means of a fusion, separation as 
sulphate, and solution in ammonium acetate, the total lead was again pre- 
cipitated as sulphide, filtered off, dissolved in nitric acid, and converted to 
sulphate in a weighed porcelain crucible. From this weight was calculated 
the percentage of lead. 


The filtrate containing the iron, aluminum, and uranium was heated with 
nitric acid to oxidize the iron, neutralized with ammonia, precipitated with 
ammoniacal ammonium carbonate in excess, and filtered. Two reprecipita- 
tions were made to extract all of the uranium. The combined filtrates were 
evaporated to small bulk, heated with an excess of nitric acid for some time to 
destroy ammonium salts, diluted, precipitated with ammonia, and the filtrate 
containing calcium discarded. 


The uranium precipitate was tested for rare earths by means of hydrofluoric 
acid at this point, but no precipitate was obtained. The uranium was then 
converted to sulphate, diluted to 150 ml., neutralized with sodium carbonate, 
and an excess of 1.5 grams of sodium bicarbonate added. After heating to 
boiling the precipitate was filtered off, dissolved in nitric acid, and reprecipi- 
tated. Asa small quantity of uranium seemed to be persistently retained by 
the precipitate in some tests the precipitate was dissolved in hydrochloric 
acid, evaporated nearly to dryness, sodium chloride added, then potassium 
ferrocyanide in excess. On filtering the precipitate off, washing, transposing 


412 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


with hot sodium hydroxide solution, filtering, washing, dissolving in nitric 
acid, and treating again with sodium carbonate and bicarbonate the remaining 
quantity of uranium passed into the filtrate and was recovered and added to 
the main portion, which was again converted to sulphate. 


The solution was brought to 12 per cent by volume of sulphuric acid, then, 
after cooling in ice water, a solution of cupferron was added. The small pre- 
cipitate was filtered off, the cupferron in the filtrate destroyed by nitric acid, 
the uranium reduced in 4 per cent sulphuric acid in a zine reductor, brought to 
6 per cent sulphuric acid, then precipitated by cupferron, filtered off and 
ignited. This material was dissolved in nitric acid, a slight quantity of in- 
soluble material filtered off, the solution diluted, boiled, and cooled and the 
uranium again precipitated with ammonia to eliminate zine sulphate, filtered 
off, ignited and weighed as U;0s. From the weight was calculated the per- 
centage of uranium, as shown in Table 1. 


TABLE 1.—LEAD-URANIUM RATIO OF THE KoLM. 
(By R. C. Wells.) 


: Pb 
Experiment Per cent Per cent 
HE ECU Se eee Lee 0.0261 — 
Dist Fak Jae ae gee = 0.440 
Been aac 5 ee .0264 — 
ce gree eS a SAS ie .0268 .412 
aot. Sens Ae =e .442 
OOO ae eee = .425 
Weighted mean........... 0.0264 0.432 
Pb:U = 0.061 


The figure for U in experiment 4 is given only half weight, as pre- 
sumably some uranium was lost. 

Owing to uncertainties in the factor a simple formula mall suffice to 
calculate the age for the present. 


log (U + 1.156 Pb) — log U 


nea 6.5 X 10-5 


million years 


This gives 458 million years, which is a little lower than the figure 
generally ascribed to the Cambrian, 500 to 600 million years, thus 
tending very slightly to shorten up the Paleozoic and bring the pre- 
Cambrian a little nearer.® 


6 After the work described above was completed some tests of the precipitation of 
uranous salts by cupferron made by J. G. Fairchild in the Survey laboratory indicated 
that the results tend to come a little low, possibly as much as 4 or 6 milligrams of 
U:Os. The question needs further study, and by several analysts. If a correction on 
this account is applicable it might raise the uranium percentage given above to 0.445, 
but the size of the correction is not yet definitely established and it should not be 
applied until the matter is investigated in greater detail. 


ocT. 19, 1931 WELLS AND STEVENS: KOLM 413 


PERMEABILITY OF THE KOLM TO GASES 
(R. E. Stevens) 


The low results generally found for the age of minerals by the helium- 
lead ratio, and usually ascribed to a loss of helium, made it of interest 
to see how permeable the kolm might be to gases. 

For the measurement of diffusion through kolm use was made of 
the apparatus previously described by one of us.’ It consists essen- 
tially of two glass chambers between which is sealed the specimen to 
be tested. After the apparatus has been evacuated, one of the cham- 
bers is filled with gas at atmospheric pressure. By means of manome- 
ter tubes readings are taken, at intervals, of the pressure in each 
chamber, from which the volume of gas diffused and the permeability 
of the sample may be calculated. 

The very small permeability of the kolm made the presence of leaks 
a grave source of error, and much time and care was taken in assem- 
bling and testing the apparatus. The specimen of kolm was sealed 
between the two chambers and the junction heavily coated with seal- 
ing wax. Two coats of shellac were added. Both chambers were 
then evacuated and pressure readings taken over a four-day period, 
showing an increase in pressure of 3 mm. The pressure seemed to 
reach a steady value after one day, and it appeared evident that the 
change was due to escape of gas held within the kolm. For this 
reason the apparatus was first allowed to stand evacuated for a day 
before making a determination. 

Decreasing the size of the chambers in order to increase the sensi- 
tivity made it necessary to determine, in each test, the change in 
volume due to displacement in the mercury columns. The size of 
manometer tubes was measured, as well as the volume of the chambers, 
so that corrections could be applied. 

In conjunction with the readings of the mercury columns, the tem- 
perature and barometric pressure were noted, pressure within the 
chambers being obtained by difference. The volume of gas in each 
chamber was then reduced to standard conditions. Decreases in 
volume in one of the chambers were in good agreement with increases 
in the other. and an average was taken as the volume of gas diffused. 

The results of experiments with air and with hydrogen are given 
in Table 2. In the last column is tabulated the permeability constant, 
k, for the kolm. In the formula for k, V is the volume of gas diffused, 
Land A the length and area, respectively, of the kolm specimen, W 


7R.C. Wells. This Journat 19: 321. 1929. 


414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


the molecular weight of the gas, p, — p. the average pressure gradient 
in atmospheres, and T' is the time in hours. 

There is a small difference in the value of & obtained with the two 
gases. This may be due in part to the fact that air is a mixture of 
gases and some fractionation may have occurred. Another small 
variation may be caused by the relative viscosities of the two gases. 

A conception of the dense nature of kolm is obtained by comparison 
with the previous study? of diffusion through ball clay with the same 
apparatus. The value of & for ball clay was found to be over 600, 


TABLE 2.—PERMEABILITY OF KoOLM TO GASES 
(By R. E. Stevens.) 


At right of plug At left of plug Vol Average 
(iE ais Paid shat oe: CUI Dieu aa 
. ‘ ’ rent 4 
Gaeused | hours) | Pressure, lad iad mim,| P0024" at 180 pilot danm,| maemo Ppp) AT. 
1 o 5 eres 
Gams eles Ci tae (ml.) (71 — pr) 
0 0.5 0.01 764 58.5 
48 113.0 7.61 675 51.1 i a a ° ce 
Air 24 154.0 10.40 640 48.0 9 45 60 031 
24.5 189.0 12.90 611 45.6 2 10 “59 032 
23.5 217.0 14.80 583 43.3 ; 
0 2.0 0.13 767.5 58.9 9 25 968 028 
4 38.0 De OP 142.5 56.8 8 00 788 025 
Hydrogen | 20 157.0 | 10.66 | 649.5 | 48.9 6.70 533 026 
24 246.5 17.00 564.0 41.8 6.85 “999 023 
48 341.0 23.92 A77.5 30.0 ‘ 


Molecular weight of air = 29.0 Molecular weight of hydrogen = 2.02 
Dimensions of kolm: Diameter = 2.92 cm.; thickness = 0.23 cm. 


with time expressed in hours, as compared with 0.03 for the kolm. 
Even with the small permeability found for kolm it is assumed that 
the gas must have passed through pores and not through the material 
of the kolm itself (as helium seems to pass through silica glass). More- 
over the experiments were made at relatively low pressures after pump- 
ing out most of the moisture in the material. 


SUMMARY 


1. The lead-uranium ratio of Swedish kolm is found to be C.061, 
a figure that will enable Cambrian time to be dated when certain 
factors are determined more accurately. Provisionally it gives about 
460 million years. 

2. The kolm is found to have a very low permeability to gases, 
0.03, as compared with 600 for a ball clay previously studied. 


S06. Gita Pp: 320. 


oor fo 193T BERRY: NODOSARIA PO7OENSIS 415 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Contributions to the paleontology of Peru, V. 
Nodosaria pozoensis W. Berry, n. sp... WILLARD BERRY. (Com- 
municated by Epwarp W. BERRY.) 


During the course of examining numerous well samples from the 
Tertiary of Northwest Peru, I commonly found separate chambers 
of a species of Nodosaria. Occasionally several were found together 
but more often they were widely scattered throughout the sample. 
In examining the samples from one well a larger piece of cutting yielded 
a nearly complete specimen. This specimen, which was slightly 
damaged in cleaning, was found in hard, gray, slightly sandy shale or 
“orada.”’ This species is probably from the Negritos formation (?) 
of the Eocene. The exact horizon is questionable due to the lack of 
exact correlation of the wells in this older part of the Eocene. 

This organism must have lived in fairly quiet waters as evidenced 
by its extremely weak structure. That the water was fairly deep or 
else was not affected by a large run off is shown by the fineness of the 
shale. ‘The species may be described as follows. 


Fig. 1. Nodosaria pozoensis W. Berry, X 3. 


Nodosaria pozoensis W. Berry, n.sp. 


Test large elongate, very slightly curved, untapered, composed of more than 
13 chambers, initial end rounded, (broken in cleaning type) apertural end 
always missing, sutures straight, distinct, depressed; walls costate, costae not 
running from chamber to chamber but stopping at each suture and not lining 
up exactly, the younger chambers having less costae, chambers inflate. 
Usually found as separate chambers. 

Length, 10 mm.; diameter, 0.75 mm. 

Nodosaria pozoensis has the general appearance of N. raphanus (Lin- 
naeus) but lacks the pointed initial end and is larger with a larger number of 
costae on each chamber. ‘This species is easily recognized even in the sepa- 
rate chambers by the heavy costae and the almost round character of the 
chambers. 

Locality—Eocene well ¥ 1920, depth 1980 feet, Negritos, Peru. 


1 Work carried out under a grant in aid from the National Research Council. Re- 
ceived August 26, 1931. 


416 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


ZOOLOGY .—WNew pocket gophers from Arizona and Utah. BE. A. Goup- 
MAN, U. 8. Biological Survey. 


During recent years many additional specimens of pocket gophers 
from typical regions and from localities tending to fill gaps in geo- 
graphic ranges, as previously known, in Arizona and adjoining territory 
have been acquired. Study of this material has afforded a clearer 
concept of the status and relationships of the numerous forms inhabit- 
ing the highly diversified general area. 

Leaving Thomomys fossor, a representative of a well marked group 
apart, out of consideration, the pocket gophers of Arizona are cur- 
rently assigned to two groups. These are the ‘“perpallidus” and 
“‘fulvus’”’ groups respectively. In revising the genus Thomomys Bailey 
(North Amer. Fauna, No. 39, p. 33, Nov. 15, 1915) aligns these groups 
as follows: ‘‘The perpallidus group includes mainly pale desert forms 
with very small ears, but has no very distinctive group characters. 

. The fulvus group includes several mountain forms of rather 
bright tawny shades, and paler tawny valley forms in the surrounding 
country.’ He also says: ‘‘The bottae group is large, variable, and 
not sharply separated from the perpallidus and fulvus groups; all of 
them agree in number and arrangement of mammae, short ears, and 
many other characters.’ 

Passing in review the material now available the writer is forced to 
the conclusion that not only are there no characters warranting the 
recognition of 7’. perpallidus and T. fulvus as separate groups, but they 
are united by forms so closely interrelated that even specific distinc- 
tion disappears. Complete intergradation is evident in some cases 
and the kind and combination of characters presented indicate such 
close relationships that it can safely be assumed in others. 

The ranges of a chain of forms connecting perpallidus and fulvus 
extend across the lower part of the Colorado River valley, interrupted 
by the river channel. The valley is inhabited on the two sides by 
forms that differ only slightly in average characters, some individuals 
being indistinguishable. This close alliance is readily understood when 
it is remembered that, from time to time, shifting channels along the 
lower Colorado transfer areas of considerable size from one side to 
the other. 


1 Received September 3, 1931. 


ocr. 19, 1931 GOLDMAN: NEW POCKET GOPHERS 417 


The near relationship of perpallidus and fulvus is clear, but it seems 
best in the present faunal treatment of pocket gophers arbitrarily to 
draw a line between the two at the Colorado River rather than to 
invite the confusion that would result through an attempt to transfer 
all of the forms of perpallidus to fulvus, the older name. Incidentally, 
general comparisons strongly indicate that forms currently placed 
under perpallidus and fulvus may eventually have to be listed as sub- 
species of botiae, a still older name. In order to avoid confusion in 
describing new subspecies the following forms from east of the Colorado 
River currently assigned, except cervinus, to perpallidus are trans- 
ferred to fulvus: 


Thomomys fulvus chrysonotus Grinnell 
Ehrenberg, Yuma County, Arizona. 
Thomomys fulvus cervinus Allen 
Phoenix, Maricopa County, Arizona. 
Thomomys fulvus aureus Allen. .. Bluff City, San Juan County, Utah. 
Thomomys fulvus apache Bailey 
Lake La Jara, Jicarilla Indian Reservation, New Mexico. 
Pocket gophers inhabit neariy every part of Arizona and adjoining 
territory, but the ranges even of subspecies are irregularly interrupted 
owing to rock formations, adverse soil, food, or other conditions. The 
multiplicity of forms appears to be the expression of environmental 
factors and the sedentary habits of the group. Some occupy exten- 
Sive ranges and others are quite restricted. Habitats vary from allu- 
vial river bottoms and sterile desert plains near sea level to high 
forested plateaus and rugged mountains, often rising abruptly to high 
elevations. 


DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SUBSPECIES 
Thomomys fulvus flavidus subsp. nov. 
Golden Pocket Gopher 


Type-—From Parker, Yuma County, Arizona (altitude 350 feet). No. 
181065, & adult, U. S. National Museum (Biological Survey collection), 
collected February 1, 1913, by E. A.Goldman. Original number 21810. 

Distribution —Known only from alluvial bottom lands along the Colorado 
River in the vicinity of the type locality. 

General characters.—A large ochraceous buff or golden yellowish subspecies 
with an angular, massive skull. Similar in color to Thomomys fulvus chrysono- 
tus (Somewhat paler than the type), but upper parts clearer ochraceous buff; 
under parts, especially inguinal region, and hind limbs all around irregularly 
marked by pure white areas, the white extending to roots of hairs (these parts 
in chrysonotus plumbeous basally); skull very similar but exhibiting a depar- 
ture in detail. Allied to Thomomys fulvus desertorum but larger, much paler 


418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


and cranial characters distinctive. Very similar in general color and super- 
ficially resembling the geographically. removed form, Thomomys fulvus aureus; 
upper parts more uniform rather pale ochraceous buff (varying to richer buffy 
tones, with dorsum moderately overlaid with black in aureus); under parts 
with irregular white markings (normally absent in aureus); skull more angular 
and massive and differing in important details. 

Color.—Type (winter pelage): Upper parts near ochraceous buff or golden 
yellow, the back scarcely modified by dark-tipped hairs, becoming light ochra- 
ceous buff on sides; under parts in general overlaid with light ochraceous buff, 
the basal color plumbeous, irregularly and extensively invaded on inguinal 
region by pure white, the white extending to roots of hairs and including hind 
limbs all around; a pure white pectoral spot; black auricular spots small, not 
reaching anterior part of ear; feet and tail thinly clothed with whitish hairs. 

Young (in first pelage): Light ochraceous buff above, creamy white below. 

Skull—Very similar in general to that of T. f. chrysonotus, but larger; 
supraoccipital region indented mesially and more distinctly concave in trans- 
verse section over foramen magnum; auditory meatus opening more widely; 
mastoid process of squamosal less deflected forward; auditory and mastoid 
bullae large and fully inflated and dentition heavy as in chrysonotus. Similar 
to that of T. f. desertorum but larger, more angular and massive; auditory and 
mastoid bullae larger, more fully rounded; mastoid bullae more swollen and 
bulging posteriorly, and less broadly overlapped by exoccipitals; dentition 
similar but heavier. Compared with that of 7. f. aureus the skull is similar in 
size, but more angular and massive; maxillary arm of zygoma heavier; nasals 
longer and broader posteriorly; ascending branches of premaxillae narrower, 
more tapering posteriorly; pterygoids broader; interpterygoid space more 
narrowly V-shaped (more or less distinctly U-shaped in aureus); auditory 
meatus opening more widely; paroccipital process in adult male more strongly 
overlapping auditory bulla; bullae large and swollen, and dentition much as in 
aureus. 

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 249 mm.; tail vertebrae, 83; hind foot, 
33. Average of three adult male topotypes: 238 (232-250); 75 (66-86); 33.5 
(32.5-34.5). Average of nine adult female topotypes: 221 (210-2386); 70 
(57-78); 32 (31-82.5). Skull (type): Condylobasal length, 41.7; zygomatic 
breadth, 27.2; greatest breadth across squamosals (over mastoids), 21.8; inter- 
orbital constriction, 6.8; length of nasals, 15; alveolar length of upper molari- 
form tooth row, 8.8. 

Remarks.—The clear, nearly uniform golden yellowish general color and 
extensive pure white areas irregularly invading the under parts and usually in- 
volving both hind legs well up toward the hips all around distinguish this form 
externally from its near relatives. It bears a rather close superficial resem- 
blance to aureus, but the ranges of the two are completely separated by those of 
interposed forms. 

Specimens examined.—Sixteen, all from the type locality. 


Thomomys fulvus modicus subsp. nov. 


Type.—From La Osa (near Mexican Boundary), southern end of Altar 
Valley, Pima County, Arizona. No. 59203, o adult, U.S. National Museum, 
collected by E. A. Mearns and F. X. Holzner, December 14, 1893. Original 
number 2681. 

Distribution.—Desert plains and valleys of central southern Arizona, and 
probably adjoining parts of Sonora, Mexico. 


ocr. 19, 1931 GOLDMAN: NEW POCKET GOPHERS 419 


General characters.—Closely allied to Thomomys fulvus cervinus of the Salt 
River Valley, but smaller, color darker, near wood brown instead of vinaceous 
buffy or fawn color in winter pelage; cranial characters distinctive. Related 
to Thomomys fulvus chrysonotus of the lower Colorado River Valley, but prevail- 
ing color wood brownish instead of pale ochraceous buffy; skull differing in 
detail. Similar in general to Thomomys fulvus toltecus of Chihuahua, but 
color duller, wood brownish instead of rich ochraceous buffy in winter pelage; 
skull more slender in form. 

Color.—Type (winter pelage); Upper parts near wood brown, purest along 
sides, thinly overlaid with dusky on head and over back; under parts pale 
ochraceous buffy, the plumbeous basal color showing through; ears encircled 
by conspicuous deep black areas; forearms, feet, and tail whitish. Some speci- 
mens in worn summer pelage are rich ochraceous buffy above. 

Skull.—Similar in general form to that of 7. f. cervinus but smaller and of 
slenderer proportions; rostrum narrower, more constricted or compressed 
laterally in front of zygomata; nasals narrower; jugal shorter. Compared 
with those of 7. f. chrysonotus and T. f. toltecus the skull is less massive than 
either; maxillary arm of zygoma sloping more strongly backward; jugal 
shorter, the result being a distinct shortening of the outer side of the zygoma, 
rostrum and nasals more slender; incisors narrower. 

Measurements —Type: Total length, 238; tail vertebrae, 79; hind foot, 30. 
Average of four adult male topotypes: 214 (204-222) ; 67 (55-75) ; 28 (25.5-30). 
Average of six adult female topotypes: 208 (198-224) ; 69 (60-74) ; 27.5 (26.5— 
28). Skull (type): Condylobasal length, 40.5; zygomatic breadth, 25; 
greatest breadth across squamosals (over mastoids), 20; interorbital constric- 
tion, 6.7; length of nasals, 13.7; alveolar length of upper molariform tooth 
row, 8. 

Remarks.—While modicus is usually much larger than intermedius and 
differs widely in color, the skulls of some females, especially, are similar in size 
in the two forms, and in other respects indicate probable intergradation. 
This desert race tends to bridge the gap between chrysonotus, the pallid sub- 
species inhabiting the region east of the lower Colorado, and the darker forms 
occupying the higher country in southeastern Arizona. It partakes also of 
the characters of cervinus, the lighter colored, more robust animal of the Salt 
River Valley. 

Specimens examined.—Total number, 20, all from Arizona as follows: Cala- 
basas, 1; Fort Lowell, 2; Indian Oasis, Baboquivari Valley, 2; La Osa (type 
locality), 11; Tucson, 4. 


Thomomys fulvus catalinae subsp. nov. 
Santa Catalina Mountain Gopher 


Type-—¥rom Summerhaven, Santa Catalina Mountains, Pima County, 
Arizona (altitude 7,500 feet). No. 244081, @ adult, U.S. National Museum 
(Biological Survey collection), collected by E. A. Goldman, August 6, 1923. 
Original number 23517. 

Distribution.—Known only from the upper slopes of the Santa Catalina 
Mountains, Arizona. 

General characters—A small, dark, richly colored subspecies. Allied to 
Thomomys fulvus toltecus, but smaller, much darker, with a narrower, less 
massive skull. Similar in general to Thomomys fulvus intermedius of the 
Huachuca Mountains, but larger; color of upper parts more uniform, without 


420 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIEINCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


the broad, blackish median dorsal area usually continuous from head to base 
of tail in 2ntermedius, and sides brighter, more tawny; cranial characters dis- 
tinctive. 

Color—Type (summer pelage): Upper parts between tawny and ochra- 
ceous tawny, clearest on lower part of sides, the top of head and back heavily 
mixed with black, the black predominating on middle of face; under parts over 
laid with light tawny, the under color everywhere dark plumbeous; ears com- 
pletely within deep black spots; feet and tail thinly clothed with dull whitish 
hairs. Some specimens exhibit small median dorsal blackish areas. 

Skull.—Narrower and less massive than that of 7. f. toltecus; zygomata 
more slender and much less widely spreading; dentition similar. Compared 
with that of T. f. zntermedius the skull is larger; rostrum less constricted in 
front of zygomata; nasals broader, less wedge-shaped posteriorly; auditory 
bullae larger, more smoothly and evenly rounded (more or less distinctly 
truncate anteriorly in intermedius). 

Measurements —Type: Total length, 218; tail vertebrae, 65; hind foot, 31. 
Average of four adult male topotypes: 211 (204-220); 64 (58-72); 28.5 (27.5- 
30). Average of four adult female topotypes: 202 (196-212); 59 (55-62); 25 
(24-26). Skull (type): Condylobasal length, 38.6; zygomatic breadth, 23.8; 
greatest breadth across squamosals (over mastoids), 19.5; interorbital con- 
striction, 6.5; length of nasals, 13; alveolar length of upper molariform tooth 
row, 8.1. 

Remarks.—T. f. catalinae somewhat resembles its geographic neighbor 
intermedius but the upper parts are richer, more tawny instead of cinnamon 
brownish, and the general color is more uniform, without the broad blackish 
median dorsal area normally extending from top of head to base of tail in 
intermedius. It is probably restricted to the Santa Catalina Mountains which 
rise island-like from the desert plains. 

Specimens examined.—Ten, all from the type locality. 


Thomomys fulvus grahamensis subsp. nov. 
Graham Mountain Pocket Gopher 


Type-—From Graham Mountains (Pinaleno Mountains on some maps) 
Graham County, Arizona (altitude 9,200 feet). No. 204313, @ adult, U.S. 
National Museum (Biological Survey collection), collected by E. G. Holt, 
June 7,1914. Original number 269. 

Distribution —Known only from the upper slopes (6,100—9,200 feet altitude) 
of the Graham Mountains, Arizona. 2 

General characters——Closely allied to Thomomys fulvus toltecus, but color 
darker; skull narrower. Resembling Thomomys fulvus fulvus of the high 
plateau region in color, but duller, less ochraceous tawny; skull differing in 
detail. Similar in size to Thomomys fulvus catalinae but lighter, the sides of 
body ochraceous buffy instead of ochraceous tawny; combination of cranial 
features distinctive. Differing from Thomomys fulvus intermedius in decidedly 
larger size, lighter color and well-marked skull characters. 

Color.—Type (summer pelage): Upper parts dark ochraceous buff, purest 
along sides, rather heavily mixed with black on top and sides of head and over 
dorsum, the dark hairs becoming somewhat thinner on rump; face blackish; 
ears encircled by deep black; under parts overlaid with light ochraceous buff, 
the basal color plumbeous everywhere; feet dull whitish; tail whitish, inter- 
rupted by irregular dusky sections above. 


eer, 19 (1931 GOLDMAN: NEW POCKET GOPHERS 421 


Skull.—Similar to that of 7. f. toltecus, but narrower; braincase narrower; 
zygomata much less widely spreading; maxillary arm of zygoma more slender, 
the external angle narrower and less prominent; jugal less expanded anteriorly 
and more strongly inclined upward to point of union with maxilla; auditory 
bullae smaller; dentition very similar. Similar to that of 7. f. fulvus, but 
narrower and flatter; zygomata much less widely spreading; auditory bullae 
rather small, much as in fuluus. Not very unlike that of 7. f. catalinae in size 
and general form, but rostrum deeper; jugal slanting more strongly upward 
from squamosal to point of union with maxilla (jugal more nearly horizontal 
in catalinae) bullae slightly smaller. Compared with that of 7. f. intermedius 
the skull is larger and heavier; nasals broader posteriorly; rostrum less con- 
stricted or compressed laterally in front of zygomata; ascending branches of 
premaxillae broader posteriorly; auditory bullae larger, more smoothly 
rounded. 

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 231; tail vertebrae, 71; hind foot, 29. 
Two adult male topotypes: 217, 225; 68, 68; 27, 28. Two adult female topo- 
types: 215, 228; 69, 76; 27, 28. Skull (type): Condylobasal length, 38.3; 
zygomatic breadth, 23.3; greatest breadth, across squamosals (over mastoids), 
19.2; interorbital constriction, 7.5 length of nasals, 13.8; alveolar length of 
upper molariform tooth row, 8.5. 

Remarks.—The present form appears to be restricted to the upper slopes of 
the Graham Mountains, doubtless intergrading lower down with toltecus which 
inhabits the Gila Valley and neighboring areas. In general color it some- 
what resembles typical fulvus but the ranges of the two are separated by an 
arm of that of toltecus along the Gila River valley, and distinctive characters 
have been pointed out. 

Specimens examined.—Ten, all from the Graham Mountains, Arizona. 


Thomomys fulvus collinus subsp. nov. 
Chiricahua Mountain Pocket Gopher 


Type——From Fly Park, Chiricahua Mountains, Cochise County, Arizona 
(altitude 9,000 feet). No. 66053, @ adult, U. S. National Museum (Bio- 
logical Survey collection), collected by A. K. Fisher, June 10, 1894. Original 
number 1527. 

Distribution —Known only from the upper slopes of the Chiricahua Moun- 
tains, Arizona. 

General characters.—Closely allied to Thomomys fulvus toltecus, but smaller 
and darker; skull of lighter proportions. Similar in size and color to Thom- 
omys fulvus grahamensis, but skull more slender. About like 7. f. catalinae 
in size, but color much lighter, the sides ochraceous buffy instead of rich tawny, 
and skull differing in detail. 

Color.—Type (summer pelage): Upper parts dark ochraceous buff, purest 
along sides, rather heavily mixed with black on top of head and over back; 
under parts overlaid with rich ochraceous buff, the hairs plumbeous at base; 
feet and tail whitish. In one specimen from 7,500 feet altitude the under 
parts are creamy white. 

Skull—Not very unlike that of 7. f. toltecus but smaller, relatively nar- 
rower, less massive. Similar in size to that of 7. f. grahamensis, but more 
slender in form; rostrum, braincase, and interorbital constriction usually nar- 
rower; nasals narrower; jugal nearly horizontal (not distinctly inclined up- 
ward anteriorly as usual in grahamensis); auditory bullae larger; incisors 


422 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


usually narrower. Compared with that of 7. f. catalinae the skull is similar 
in size and form but is usually narrower; rostrum more slender; bullae usually 
smaller; dentition about the same. 

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 225; tail vertebrae, 68; hind foot, 29. 
Two adult males from Pinery Canyon (altitude 7,500 feet), Chiricahua Moun- 
tains: 210, 190; 74, 60; 27, 26. Two adult females from same locality: 200, 
190; 74, 62; 27, 27. Skull (type): Condylobasal length, 39; zygomatic 
breadth, 24; greatest breadth across squamosals (over mastoids), 19.8; inter- 
orbital constriction, 6.6; length of nasals, 12.4; alveolar length of upper molari- 
form tooth row, 8.3. 

Remarks.—T. f. collinus is a small dark high mountain subspecies readily 
distinguished from the larger lighter ochraceous toltecus of the neighboring 
plains. Specimens from the mouth of Turkey Creek at 5,000 feet altitude are 
dark in color, but the skulls are heavier than in typical collinus and indicate 
gradation toward toltecus. ‘The present form resembles grahamensis exter- 
nally but differs in combination of cranial characters, and the ranges of the 
two are separated by an arm of that of toltecus. 

Specimens examined.—Total number, 24, all from the Chiricahua Moun- 
tains, Arizona, as follows: Fly Park, 1 (type); Pinery Canyon (7,500 feet), 
6; Rucker Canyon, 6; Turkey Creek (mouth, 5,000 feet), 11. 


Thomomys fulvus pusillus subsp. nov. 
Coyote Mountain Pocket Gopher 


Type-—F¥rom Coyote Mountains, Pima County, Arizona (altitude 3,000 
feet). No. 209290, 2 adult, U.S. National Museum (Biological Survey col- 
lection), collected by E. A. Goldman, September 4, 1915. Original number 
22722. 

Distribution —Known only from the Coyote Mountains; probably inhakit- 
ing other desert mountain ranges of central southern Arizona. 

General characters.—A small, rich ochraceous tawny form with a slender, 
delicate skull and large, fully distended bullae. Similar in size to Thomomys 
fulvus intermedius, but general color above rich ochraceous tawny (without a 
broad blackish median dorsal line) instead of cinnamon brown, and cranial 
characters, especially form of zygomata and large bullae, quite distinctive. 
Much smaller than Thomomys fuluus modicus, color richer, more tawny, and 
skull differing in detail. 

Color—Type: Upper parts between tawny and ochraceous tawny, purest 
along sides, the top of head and back somewhat darkened by black-tipped 
hairs; muzzle blackish; black auricular spots small, encircling entire ears; under 
parts ochraceous buffy; feet white; tail grayish dusky above, whitish below. 

Skull—Similar in size and general form to that of 7. f. intermedius, but 
flatter; zygomata diverging and widest anteriorly (instead of posteriorly as in 
intermedius); nasals broader posteriorly, the ends emarginate as usual in 
intermedius; premaxillae narrower posteriorly; basioccipital narrower; audi- 
tory and mastoid bullae much larger, more swollen and smoothly rounded; 
molariform toothrows shorter. Compared with that of 7. f. modicus the 
skull is very much smaller and flatter; zygomata widest anteriorly instead of 
posteriorly ; auditory and mastoid bullae similarly inflated. 

Measurements—Type: Total length, 201; tail vertebrae, 65; hind foot, 
27.5. Skull (type): Condylobasal length, 32.6; zygomatic breadth, 19.7; 
greatest breadth across squamosals (over mastoids), 17.1; interorbital con- 


oct. 19, 1931 GOLDMAN: NEW POCKET GOPHERS 423 


striction, 6.2; length of nasals, 11; alveolar length of upper molariform tooth 
row, 6.8. 

Remarks.—This small desert-mountain form approaches intermedius in 
size, but in the sum of its characters is more nearly related to the much larger 
lowland subspecies modicus. It may be expected to occur in other desert 
mountain ranges in the region of the type locality. I+ is based on a single 
specimen which presents cranial characters that appear to be quite distinctive. 


Thomomys fulvus peramplus subsp. nov. 
Tunicha Mountain Pocket Gopher 


Type.—From Wheatfield Creek, west slope of Tunicha Mountains, Apache 
County, northwestern Arizona (altitude 7,000 feet). No. 247632, % adult, 
U. S. National Museum (Biological Survey collection), collected by Paul 
Trapier, June 23, 1927. Original number 720. 

Distribution —Mountains of northeastern Arizona and northwestern New 
Mexico (altitude 7,000-8,800 feet). 

General characters—A large dark-colored subspecies closely resembling 
Thomomys fulvus apache, of northern New Mexico, but upper parts still duller, 
the sides vinaceous instead of dull ochraceous buffy; skull more elongated and 
presenting a departure in detail. Contrasting strongly with Thomomys 
fulvus aureus of southeastern Utah in dark, dull coloration, but cranial char- 
acters indicate close relationship and the two doubtless intergrade along the 
basal slopes of the mountains. Color much duller than Thomomys fulvus 
fulvus of the high plateau region of Arizona, and skull quite distinctive. 

Color.—Upper and under parts near vinaceous buff, clearest along sides, 
the top of head and posterior part of back blackish; dark plumbeous basal color 
tending to show through nearly everywhere and accentuating the dull general 
tone; black auricular spots inconspicuous, nearly confluent with general color 
of dorsum; ankles dusky; fore feet grayish or light brownish; hind feet white; 
tail above clothed with brownish hairs on proximal half, becoming white be- 
yond to tip and whitish below. 

Skull.—Closely aproaching that of 7. f. awreus but rostrum longer; nasals 
broader posteriorly and premaxillae correspondingly reduced. Similar to that 
of T. f. apache, but more elongated; rostrum decidedly longer; nasals longer 
and broader posteriorly, less wedge-shaped; premaxillae narrower posteriorly; 
interorbital constriction narrower; bullae large and rounded, about as in 
apache. Compared with that of 7. f. fulvus the skull is similar in general form, 
but larger, more angular and massive; nasals less wedge-shaped, broader pos- 
teriorly, the ends irregularly truncate instead of emarginate; auditory bullae 
much larger, bulging farther below basioccipital; dentition heavier. 

Measurements.— Type: Total length, 260; tail vertebrae, 80; hind foot, 35. 
Average of four adult male topotypes: 246 (240-255); 80 (60-90); 35 (84-37). 
Average of six adult female topotypes: 230 (225-240) ; 75 (65-88) ; 32 (31-33). 
Skull (type): Condylobasal length, 45.6; zygomatic breadth, 28; greatest 
breadth across squamosals (over mastoids), 23; interorbital constriction, 6.7; 
length of nasals, 16.8; alveolar length of upper molariform tooth row, 8.8. 

Remarks.—In dark, dull coloration this high-mountain form resembles 
apache, but in cranial characters reveals closer relationship to the vividly 
tinted subspecies aureus of the surrounding deserts. Its known vertical range 
is from 7,000 to 8,000 feet. At the type locality it occurs in close proximity to 


424 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


the distinct species, Thomomys fossor, which seems to replace it at about 9,600 
feet altitude along the crest of the Tunicha Mountains. 

Specimens examined.—Total number, 33, as follows: 
Arizona: Canyon de Chelly (7 miles above mouth), 1; Fort Defiance (12 miles 
northwest), 1; Saint Michaels, 2; Tunicha Mountains (type locality), 16. 
New Mexico: Chusca Mountains, 13. 


Thomomys perpallidus osgoodi subsp. nov. 


Type.—From Hanksville, Wayne County, Utah. No. 158530, o& adult, 
U. S. National Museum (Biological Survey collection), collected by W. TEL 
Osgood, October 20, 1908. Original number 3701. 

Distribution.—Fremont River Valley near Hanksville, Utah; limits of range 
unknown. 

General characters.—A very light ochraceous buffy or light yellowish form 
with a rather massive skull. Somewhat resembling Thomomys fulvus aureus 
from Bluff, San Juan County, Utah, but upper parts contrasting in decidedly 
lighter ochraceous buffy tones, and cranial characters distinctive. Related to 
Thomomys perpallidus planirostris from Zion National Park, but much paler, 
and skull differing in important features, especially the arched instead of 
flattened or depressed upper surface near anterior roots of zygomata. 

Color.—Type (winter pelage): Upper parts very light ochraceous buff, 
richest on posterior part of back, unmodified by dark-tipped hairs present in 
most related forms; middle of face, nose, and area near mouth indistinctly 
dusky; under parts and well up on flanks and outer sides of limbs creamy white; 
black auricular spots small, but conspicuous and completely encircling ears; 
feet and tail white. Five other specimens are practically identical in color. 

Skull.—Similar in general form to that of 7. f. aureus, but smaller; occipital 
region more smoothly rounded above, tending to bulge posteriorly below 
slightly developed lambdoid crest; premaxillae narrower posteriorly and taper- 
ing to a more acute point; sides of zygomata more or less distinctly bowed in- 
ward near middle (sides more nearly straight in aureus); interpterygoid fossa _ 
more narrowly V-shaped (usually more nearly U-shaped in aureus); basi- 
occipital shorter; bullae slightly smaller, but fully inflated; dentition about the 
same. Compared with that of 7. p. planirostris the skull is arched, instead of 
flattened or depressed, and more or less distinctly concave in cross section 
along the median line near anterior roots of zygomata; occipital region more 
projecting posteriorly below lambdoid crest; auditory bullae larger, more dis- 
tended below level of basioccipital. 

Measurements —Type: Total length, 233; tail vertebrae, 72; hind foot, 
30.5. Two adult male topotypes: 215, 225; 68, 70; 29, 29. Average of three 
adult female topotypes: 197 (184-203) ; 58 (51-63); 27 (27-27.5). Skull (type): 
Condylobasal length, 39; zygomatic breadth, 24.2; greatest breadth across 
squamosals (over mastoids), 20.3; interorbital constriction, 6.9; length of 
nasals, 13.8; alveolar length of upper molariform tooth row, 8. 

Remarks.—T. p. osgoodi superficially resembles aureus, but is lighter yellow- 
ish and in cranial characters presents a marked departure. Moreover, it is 
separated from aureus by the effective barrier of the Colorado River. Itisa 
well marked subspecies more closely allied to planirostris and other forms inhab- 
iting the territory north and west of the Colorado River. 

Specimens examined.—Six skins and skulls and two skulls without skins, all 
from the type locality. 


oct. 19, 1931 GOLDMAN: NEW POCKET GOPHERS 425 


Thomomys perpallidus dissimilis subsp. nov. 
Henry Mountain Pocket Gopher 


Type.—From east slope of Mount Ellen, Henry Mountains, Garfield 
County, Utah (altitude 8,000 feet). No. 158526, 2 adult, U. S. National 
Museum (Biological Survey collection), collected by W. H. Osgood, October 
15, 1908. Original number 3677. 

Distribution Known only from the type locality; probably generally dis- 
tributed over the upper slopes of the Henry Mountains. 

General characters.——Closely allied to Thomomys perpallidus osgoodi but 
upper parts near light buff, instead of light ochraceous buff, and skull differing 
in detail. Similar in general to Thomomys fulvus aureus but smaller, light 
buffy color contrasting strongly with rich ochraceous buff of aureus, and 
cranial characters distinctive. Differmg from Thomomys perpallidus plani- 
rostris in pallid coloration, and important cranial features. 

Color — Type (winter pelage): Upper parts near light buff, faintly darkened 
along the median dorsal area by dusky-tipped hairs; muzzle dusky; black 
auricular spots small, but including entire ears; under parts, forearms and hind 
legs creamy white; feet and tail whitish. Young (in first pelage): Similar to 
type but inclining toward light ochraceous buff on top of head, neck, and 
shoulders. 

Skull—Most closely resembling that of Thomomys perpallidus osgoodi, 
but more elongated; rostrum longer; zygomata more slender, more strongly 
converging anteriorly; bullae less rounded, more compressed laterally; incisors 
pale, the ends less recurved. Compared with that of T. p. planirostris the 
skull is arched, instead of flattened or depressed and more or less distinctly con- 
cave in cross section along the median line near anterior roots of zygomata; 
occipital region more projecting posteriorly below lambdoid crest; zygomata 
narrower, more slender, more strongly converging anteriorly; auditory bullae 
more elongated, more compressed laterally and projecting below level of 
basioccipital. Similar in general to that of 7. f. awreus, but smaller, more 
slender, and differing in important details as follows: Occipital region more 
smoothly rounded above, tending to bulge posteriorly below lambdoid crest; 
zygomata narrower, more slender and converging anteriorly; interpterygoid 
fossa more narrowly V-shaped; auditory bullae narrower, less fully inflated; 
teeth smaller, the incisors less recurved. 

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 211; tail vertebrae, 60; hind foot, 27° 
Skull (type): Condylobasal length, 37; zygomatic breadth, 21.6; greatest 
breadth across squamosals (over mastoids), 18.8; interorbital constriction, 
6.8; length of nasals, 12.2; alveolar length of upper molariform tooth row, 7.6. 

Remarks.—Pocket gophers from high mountains are usually dark, but 7. p. 
dissimilis is remarkable for its pallid coloration. Near relationship to osgoodz 
of the adjoining Fremont River Valley is evident but the unusual color and the 
combination of cranial characters are distinguishing features. 

Specimens examined.—Three, from the type locality. 


Thomomys perpallidus absonus subsp. nov. 


Houserock Valley Pocket Gopher 


Type.—F¥ rom Jacob’s Pools, Houserock Valley, Coconino County, northern 
Arizona (altitude 4,000 feet). No. 250016, o& adult, U. S. National Museum 


426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


(Biological Survey collection), collected by E. A. Goldman, June 7, 1931. 
Original number 23569. 

Distribution Known only from the type locality. 

General characters.—A dull grayish buffy subspecies of medium size, with a 
narrow, slenderly formed skull. Closely allied to Thomomys perpallidus 
planirostris but paler, with differential cranial characters, especially the higher 
midline of the fronto-nasal region. Similar in general to Thomomys per- 
pallidus osgoods and Thomomys perpallidus dissimilis, but much darker, and 
skull presenting a different combination of characters. 

Color.—Type (acquiring summer pelage): Upper parts near light ochra- 
ceous buff, purest along sides, thinly mixed over top of head and back with 
pale dusky hairs producing a dull rather grayish buffy combined effect; muzzle 
dusky; black postauricular spots rather large, extending forward to include 
anterior margins of ears; under parts overlaid with pale ochraceous buff; fore- 
arms, ankles, and feet whitish; tail whitish, becoming pale buffy above near 
base. Insome specimens the under parts vary to light ochraceous buff. 

Skull—Similar in general structure to that of Thomomys perpallidus 
planirostris, but of slenderer proportions, the zygomata very weak, and the 
lambdoid crest and temporal ridges slightly developed even in adult males; 
frontal region and posterior part of rostrum less flattened or depressed along 
the median line, and lacking the concavity in cross section characterizing 
planirostris; ascending branches of premaxillae narrower, less extended pos- 
teriorly beyond nasals; palate usually narrower; teeth smaller. Compared 
with that of 7. p. osgood: the skull is more slender in form; rostrum longer and 
relatively narrower; zygomata more slender, the jugal, especially, more attenu- 
ate; palate narrower; auditory bullae less inflated, less bulging below basi- 
occipital; dentition similar. Differing from that of 7. p. dissimilis in more 
squarely spreading zygomata; auditory bullae broader, more rounded, less 
laterally compressed and Jess projecting below basioccipital; incisors slightly 
more recurved. 

Measurements —Type: Total length, 230; tail vertebrae, 79; hind foot, 30. 
Average of three adult male topotypes: 231 (228-234); 77 (74-82); 31 (30- 
32.5). Two adult female topotypes: 210, 217; 69, 70; 30, 29. Skull (type): 
Condylobasal length, 40; zygomatic breadth, 24.4; greatest breadth across 
squamosals (over mastoids), 19.5; interorbital constriction, 6.6; length of 
nacals, 13.7; alveolar length of upper molariform tooth row, 7.3. 

Remarks.—T. p. absonus is a fairly well marked form probably restricted to 
Houserock Valley which occupies a broad depression with a generally level 
bottom lying along the northern side of the Marble Canyon of the Colorado 
River. This reach of the river bisects the interior basin of which Houserock 
Valley is the northern half, at the upper entrance to the Grand Canyon, and 
forms a barrier limiting the distribution of most of the smaller mammals. The 
species or subspecies usually differ on the opposing sides of the stream. The 
bottom of Houserock Valley is gashed by side canyons of the Colorado and the 
dispersal of this pocket gopher is much restricted even here. It has been 
found inhabiting soft sand extending for about two miles out over the floor of 
the valley from near Jacob’s Pools, a spring at the western base of the escarp- 
ment marking the great fault line known as the Vermilion Cliffs. 

Specimens examined.—Twelve, from the type locality. 


ocr, 19,1931 SHAMEL: A NEW CRICETINE RODENT 427 


MAMMALOGY.—Akodon chacoensis, a new cricetine rodent from 
Argentina! H. Haroup Samet, U. 8. National Museum. 
(Communicated by JoHN B. REESIDE, JR.) 

A new cricetine rodent has been found in a collection of mammals 
from Argentina that was made in 1920 by Dr. Alexander Wetmore. 
This specimen was discovered at the same time as Marmosa formosa, 
which I described in March, 1930, but until it could be compared with 
specimens in the British Museum [| hesitated to publish on it. It 
has since been compared with specimens in the British Museum by 
Dr. W. H. Osgood, and this comparison bears out my original 
conclusion. 


Akodon chacoensis sp. nov. 
Figs. 1, 2. 


Type.—Adult male, skin and skull, No. 236239, collected in Las Palmas, 
Chaco, Argentina, by Dr. A. Wetmore, June 20, 1920. 

Diagnosis.—In its external measurements it is practically the same size as 
Akodon arenicola from Argentina, but considerably darker in color. Enamel 
folds, on the inner side of the tooth row, somewhat flattened and folded dis- 
tinctly backward; reentrant angles closed; without groove on anterior surface 
of m? or inner surface of m*. 

Skull—tThe skull, when compared with that of Akodon arenicola, is char- 
acterized by the large size of the brain case in proportion to the rather weak 
short rostrum. ‘The anterior edge of the zygomatic plate is perfectly straight 
and projects forward scarcely at all. The drop downward of the zygoma from 
the plate is very abrupt, so much so, that the arch formed by the infraorbital 
plate and the inferior border of the zygoma is almost completely hidden when 
the skull is viewed from the side. The drop of the zygoma is so abrupt down- 
ward that there is rather a well defined angle where it joins the zygomatic 
plate. The lowest dip of the zygomatic arch is in its center, while in other 
species it is found at the posterior curve. The rostrum is short. The dis- 
tance from the anterior edge of zygomatic plate to anterior surface of incisor, 
46mm. The lateral depressions of the basioccipital are deep and are scooped 
out abruptly back of the basal suture. The palate, which extends well behind 
m', is broad at posterior end of the tooth row (4.4 mm.) and not waist-like. 
Six small pits in the palate, three on each side, but none farther back than a 
line joining the centers of m’. The palatal foramen extends from the middle 
of first molar until it almost touches the incisors. 

Teeth.—The enamel folds of the upper molars are more or less flat, and are 
folded distinctly backward; the reentrant angle on the inner side of the tooth 
row is directed forward and closed. In other forms of Akodon the enamel folds 
are rounded, not folded backward, and the reentrant angle is open. On the. 
outer side of the tooth row the reentrant angle is directed backward, except the 
first reentrant angle of m? which points straight inward. The teeth are well 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received 
August 8, 1931. 


428 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


worn; m! has three cusps on the outer edge with a secondary one between the 
second and third, and three on the inner side; m? has four cusps on its outer 
edge, one and three being secondary, two on the inner edge. ‘The anterior 
surface of m1 and the inner surface of m? are smooth. m? is a round peg-like 
tooth with two well defined enamel islands. The incisors are curved more 
abruptly inward toward the throat than any other species examined, and 
according to Thomas are what would be called opisthodont. 

Color.—The general color is olivaceous with some buff about the eyes and 
sides of head and along the sides of the body; but the back is very dark, almost 
black from the shoulders down to the base of the tail. The underparts are 
whitish, with a very slight buffish tinge; hairs basally dark slate both above 
and below. The feet appear to be dark brown clothed in short white hair, but 
this is because the hairs which cover them are brown at the base and tipped 
with white. The digits are white. 

Measurements.—Type: total length, 160 mm.; tail, 66 mm.; hind foot, 22.5 
mm.; greatest length of skull, 25.0 mm.; condylobasal length, 22.4 mm.; 
zygomatic breadth, 12.2 mm.; interorbital breadth, 4.5 mm.; length of nasals, 
8.4 mm.; breadth of braincase, 12.6 mm.; diastema, 5.5 mm.; maxillary tooth 
row, 4.0 mm.; mandibular tooth row, 4.0 mm.; length of mandible, 14.6 mm. 


Fig. 1. Akodon chacoensis, lateral view of skull X 3. U.S. N.M. No. 236239. 


I have compared this specimen with the following species of Akodon: areni- 
cola, arviculoides, bogotensis, boliviensis, canescens, cursor, lenguarum, mollis, 
neocenus, pulcherimus, surdus, tolimae. In only one species of Akodon was the 
brain case any wider and that was in A. lenguarwm (13.2 mm. as against 12.6 
mm.), and A. lenguarwm is a much larger animal. In all other species the 
brain case is smaller. Some of the differences between the specimen from 
Chaco and other species of Akodon may be summarized as follows: 

1. Much larger brain case in proportion to length of rostrum. 

. Palatal foramen extends nearer the incisors. 

. Palate extends farther behind m?. 

. Palate behind m? not waist-like. 

. Zygomatie plate has a well defined angle. 

. Zygoma drops much lower, particularly anteriorly. 


HS ore W WD 


oct. 19, 1931 SHAMEL: A NEW CRICETINE RODENT 429 


7. Enamel folds on inside of tooth row folded backward on one another like 
window shutters. 

8. Incisors curve inward more abruptly toward the throat. 

9. Reentrant angles closed. 

This specimen was taken to the British Museum by Dr. W. H. Osgood and 
compared with South American specimens there. Dr. Osgood had the follow- 
ing to say: 

There is nothing like this in the British Museum. ‘The species is doubtless 
new and the genus is uncertain. .. . 

This may be a new genus, but until more than one specimen can be exam- 
ined, it would not help much to name it. The relationships of those already 
named are very obscure and Thomas has reversed himself on them several 
times. There are a lot of species which won’t fit exactly into any of the groups 
he has recognized. 


Vig. 2. Akodon chacoensis, palatal view of skull X 38. U.S.N.M. No. 236239. 


Dr. A. Wetmore at the time he collected this specimen made the following 
note: 

Number 1059 was secured in a small patch of marsh grass, about ten feet 
square, in an open savannah. The white toes with square cut demarcation 


behind were especially noticeable. This animal had a skin as tender as a 
rabbit’s, and thus differed from any other mouse that I have handled. 


It is doubtless best, under the present condition of uncertainty with respect 
to some of the South American genera, to make this} only a new species. How- 
ever, the characters of the enamel folds, without considering other peculi- 
arities, are so distinctive that there is no doubt in my mind that when other 
specimens are taken they will show that this animal represents a new genus. 


430 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 17 


ENTOMOLOGY.—New Jassinae, with notes on other species P. 
W. Oman, U. 8. Bureau of Entomology. (Communicated by 
Harouip Morrison.) 


PLATYMETOPIUS HYALINUS Osb. 


Platymetopius cinctus Mats., Jour. Col. Agr., Tohoku Imperial Univ., Vol. 
Darbeds 2 ol One. 

This pretty little leafhopper was described by Osborn (Ent. News, XI, p. 
501, 1900) from specimens taken in Washington on an introduced maple. He 
and later workers in the group have strongly suspected that the species was 
an introduced one, but knowledge of original habitat has not heretofore been 
available. However, in looking over the leafhoppers in the C. F. Baker col- 
lection the writer found two specimens of this insect from Japan labeled 
Platymetopius cinctus Matsumura determined by Matsumura. P. cinctus 
was not described until 1914 (Jour. Col. Agr., Tohoku Imperial Univ., vol. 5, 
Part 7, p. 215) so it becomes a synonym of P. hyalinus Osb. Matsumura 
reports the species from Hokkaido, Honshu (Tokyo, Gifu, Takasago) and 
Kiushu (Satsuma) and says it was collected in numbers from a species 01 
maple. This evidence strengthens the assumption of Dikerson and Weiss 
(Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. vol. 12, p. 372, 1919) that the hopper was brought into 
this country on imported maples. Since its importation it has spread rather 
rapidly and is now reported as far west as Ohio. The writer has also examined 
specimens in the collection of the University of Kansas taken at Portland, 
Oregon, Aug. 12, 1920, by A. A. Nichol, indicating the introduction of the 
species to the west coast as well as the east. 


Laevicephalus excavatus n. sp. 
Figs. 3, 3a, 3b 


Resembling Laevicephalus striatus (L) but slightly smaller, with the male 
plates longer and the last ventral segment of the female roundingly excavated. 
Length 3-3.5 mm. 

Color: Much as in typical striatus but variable. Darker specimens show a 
pair of triangular brown spots at the apex of the vertex and two pairs of 
quadrangular spots behind these. Paler specimens may have only the spots 
at the apex. Pronotum with four faint longitudinal brown stripes. Veins 
of elytra whitish, cells variously embrowned. 

Form: Vertex one-fourth wider than long, distinctly right-angled. Head 
slightly wider than pronotum. General appearance more robust than striatus. 

Genitalia: Last ventral segment of female slightly longer than preceding 
with a median U-shaped excavation extending half-way to the base, length 
next the excavation exceeding length at side of abdomen. Male valve as in 
striatus but plates slightly more exposed and divergent at the tips than in that 


1 Received August 15, 1931. 


Ger. 19, 195i OMAN: NEW JASSINAE 431 


species. In the internal male genitalia the shaft of the oedagus, from the point 
of union of the two forks to the point of articulation of the penis, although 
much heavier and broader, is less than half as long as the corresponding por- 
tion in L. striatus (L.). 

Holotype female from Gazelle, California, Sept. 4, 1897, A. Morse, Collec- 
tion C. F. Baker (2373). 

Allotype male, same data. 

Paratypes, 24 males and 5 females with the above data, one male from Sis- 
kiyou, Oregon, Sept. 6, 1897, A. Morse, Collection C. F. Baker (2381), and 8 
males and 7 females from Lakeside, Lake Tahoe, California, June 29, 1927, 
J. M. Aldrich. 

Types.—Cat. No. 48584, U.S. N. M. 


LAEVICEPHALUS DEBILIS (Uhler). 


Deltocephalus cadyt Deay, Can. Ent., vol. 59, pp. 54-55, 1927. 

Laevicephalus orbiculus DeL. & 8. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., vol. 22, p.103, 1929. 

In his description of the species (Bul. U. 8. Geol. Geog. Surv., 1, p. 360 
[94], 1876) Uhler gives, as the locality, ‘‘Colorado, on the sides of the high 
mountains, and near Fair Play, in South Park.” Of the original series, so far 
as the writer is able to determine, there are only two specimens remaining. 
Both are females, one labeled ‘‘Col. Mts.” and evidently one of those referred 
to as occurring ‘‘on the sides of high mountains,”’ while the other is from Fair 
Play. Both labels are in Uhler’s handwriting. Since the specimen labeled 
““Col. Mts.” has locality preference and answers in all respects to the descrip- 
tion, it should be considered as typical of the species. The example from 
Fair Play is another species, apparently exectus DeLong, and does not fit 
Uhler’s characterization of debilis. However, the specimen at hand from 
“Col. Mts.” is not the species heretofore known as debilis, but is identical with 
specimens of L. orbiculus DeL. & Slmn. (Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. vol. 22, p. 103, 
1919) and with paratypes of L. cady: (Deay) (Can. Ent., vol. 59, pp. 54-55, 
1927), obtained through the kindness of Dr. P. B. Lawson. The above-men- 
tioned species hence must be accepted as synonyms of L. debilis (Uhler) while 
the species commonly known as debilzs is unnamed and will be described later 
in this paper. 

That Uhler’s description does not apply to the larger species formerly 
known as debilis is shown by the fact that he gives the length of 3.5 mm., and 
says the front is ‘‘stained with black above and on each side.”’ These char- 
acters fit his example but cannot be applied to the larger species. There are 
also in the Uhler collection examples of this larger species from the C. F. Baker 
collection. ‘These Uhler had labeled ‘‘ Deltocephalus debilis Uhler var.’’— 
further evidence that he recognized them as not being typical of debzlis. 

_L. debilis (UhI.) seems to be limited in distribution to the higher altitudes in 
the northwestern part of the United States. I have seen specimens from 
Wyoming, Colorado, and Montana. 


432 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


Laevicephalus uhleri n. sp. 


Similar to L. debiles (Uhler) but larger and more robust, the female genital 
segment without prominent lateral angles. Length of female 4 mm., of male 
3./omm. 

Color: General ground color yellowish green, front usually brownish with 
pale arcs over the entire surface. HEHlytra occasionally black, in part or wholly. 
Tip of last ventral segment of female black. Abdomen variously infuscated. 

Form: Somewhat variable, about as in debilis but more robust. Last ven- 
tral segment of female with rounding lateral angles, produced medially and 
slightly bifid. Male valve bluntly triangular, plates large and broad, bluntly 
rounded and not equaling pygofer. 

Most references in literature to L. debslis (Uhl.) apply to this species, one 
of the commonest in high altitude and northern regions. However, this 
species lacks the prominent lateral angles on the female segment which are 
characteristic of Uhler’s species, and has the front usually wholly uniformly 
brownish with faint arcs, while debilzs is marked with black only toward the 
apex and on the sides of the front, the remaining portion being distinctly 
lighter. 

Holotype female and allotype male are from Forrester’s Ranch, Laramie Co., 
Colorado, August 3, 1896, C. F. Baker, Collection C. F. Baker (2020). 

Numerous paratypes from Forrester’s Ranch, collection C. F. Baker (2020 
and 2013) and Morris Ranch, Laramie Co., Colorado, July 11, 1896, C. F. 
Baker, Collection, C. F. Baker (2009). There are also specimens at hand 
from other localities in Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Utah, Washington, and 
Canada. 

Types.—Cat. No. 43585, U. 8. N. M. 


Deltocephalus lineatifrons n. sp. 
Figs. 2, 2a, 2b 


Size and form of D. chintinomy DeLong but with two black longitudinal 
stripes on the front. Length of male 2.75 mm., of female 3 mm. 

Color: General ground color pale yellow. Front and vertex yellow except 
for two wide parallel stripes of black which cover the sides of the frons and a 
portion of the genae, and extend to the disc of the vertex, coming closer to- 
gether as they do so, with a partial break at the apex of the vertex. Pronotum 
with anterior margin irregularly infuscated, as in the scutellum. Clavus of 
each elytron with an oblique fuscous mark, the two together forming a rough . 
VY on the dorsal median line. A large irregular fuscous spot on the disc and a 
smaller one near the apex of the corium. Abdomen infuscated. Central 
portion of hind margin of last ventral segment of female pale brown. 

Form: General appearance robust. Vertex well produced and rounded to 
the front, length on the median line two-thirds the width at base. Pronotum 
with anterior margin strongly convex, posterior margin straight, length at 
middle exceeding length of vertex, sides very short. Elytra of male exceeding 
abdomen; of female, short, leaving tip of abdomen exposed. 

Genitalia: Last ventral segment of female twice longer than preceding, 
lateral angles rounded, central portion rather broadly excavated, a small tooth 
at the bottom of the excavation. Sides and base of notch brownish. Male 
valve broad and slightly triangular, plates together broad at base and well pro- 
duced with rounded tips. 

This species belongs to the fuscinervosus group but appears to be most 


aor 19,1931 OMAN: NEW JASSINAE 433 


closely related to chintinomy DeLong, from which it may be separated by the 
markings of the vertex and front. 

Holotype male and Allotype female from Spicer’s, North Park, Colorado, 
July 18, 1896, C. F. Baker, Collection C. F. Baker (2024). 

Paratypes.—6 males and 4 females with the above data, 2 males and 2 
females from Rabbit Ears Pass, Colorado, July 21, 1896, C. F. Baker, Collec- 
tion C. F. Baker (2019), and one male from Cameron Pass, N. Colorado, July 
30, 1896, C. F. Baker, Collection C. F. Baker (2150). 

Types.—Cat. No. 43586, U. 8. N. M. 

It is interesting to note that North Park, Colorado, has a mean altitude of 
from 8,000 to 9,000 feet and Rabbit Ears Pass and Cameron Pass are both 
near 10,000 feet in altitude. C. F. Baker’s collection notes state that 2024 
was “on grass, Carex, and a little Potentilla,” and 2150 was ‘‘on mostly 
Carex.” From this it is evident that the species is confined to situations in 
high altitudes, apparently alpine meadows. 


THAMNOTETTIX SIMPLEX (Herrich-Schieffer). 


Deltocephalus chlamydatus Prov., Pet. Faune Ent. Can., vol. 2, p. 339, 1890. 

The writer has compared specimens of Thamnotettix chlamydatus (Prov.) 
from Colorado, Canada, and Alaska with examples of Thamnotettix simplex 
(H.8.) from Europe and finds them to be identical in all external characters 
and in the internal male genitalia. Th. simplex (H.8.) has priority. 

The species is apparently common in both North America and Europe. In 
North America it is limited in distribution to northern localities or high 
altitudes. 

DryYLrx TRUNCATUS Sleesman 
Fig. 4 

Female: Similar to male, but slightly longer. Last ventral segment 
slightly longer than preceding, with a median shallow, rounded excavation; 
the sides of this more produced than the sides of the segment. Disc of seg- 
el usually yellowish, hind margin dark, darker in excavation. Ovipositor 

ack. 

This species was described from two males from Ohio (Ent. Amer., vol. X, 
No. 2, 1929). The description of the female is based upon one specimen from 
Chicago, Illinois, two from New Jersey, and two from Norwood, Maryland 
(Uhler). There are also males at hand from New Jersey. 


MENOSOMA ACUMINATA (Bak.) 
Fig. I 

This species was described by Baker (Psyche, vol. 7, Suppl. 1, p. 25, 1896, 
Athysanus) from a single male. Osborn and Ball, in their monograph of the 
group (1902), stated that ‘‘This species is only known by the single, faded, 
male type and while it without doubt belongs to the subgenus Conosanus its 
character could not be made out with sufficient certainty to warrant including 
in the synopsis.”” Sleesman (1929) did not mention it in his monograph of the 
Euscelis group. 


7. acuminata 


2a 


D. linea tifrons 


D. truncatus 


3a 


L. excavatus 


5a Xl 


Ph. dive rgens Ph. obyius 


EXPLANATION OF FIGURES 


Fig. 1. Menosoma acuminata; female genitalia. XX 15.5. 

Fig. 2. Deltocephalus lineatifrons; 2a, male genitalia; 2b, female genitalia. X 31. 

Fig. 3. Laevicephalus excavatus ; 3a, male genitalia; 3b, female genitalia. X 31. 

Fig. 4. Drylix truncatus; female genitalia. > 15.5. 

Fig. 5. Phlepsius divergens; 5a, lateral view of head; 5b, male genitalia. X 15.5. 

Fig. 6. Phlepsius obvius; 6a, lateral view of head; 6b, male genitalia; 6c, female 
genitalia. >< 15.5. 


434 u 


oct. 19, 1931 OMAN: NEW JASSINAE 435 


Some time ago there was sent to the Bureau of Entomology by Mr. Van E. 
Romney from Alamo Alto Sta. in Western Texas a single female which was 
identified by the writer as acuminata (Baker). Subsequently, when the group 
was being arranged, a pair of specimens was found labeled by Dr. E. D. Ball: 
“This is Athysanus acuminatus Bak.” Since these are the only known 
records of the female of the species a description is here added. 

Similar in size and coloration to the male. Last ventral segment with a 
long, median, spatulate process ending in two lateral points, between these a 
U-shaped excavation. Segment, aside from process, short, longer next the 
process than at lateral margins. 

The male types seems to be quite typical in color for the species. Ball 
(Florida Ent., vol. XV, No. 1, p. 5, 1931) has recently placed the species in the 
genus Menosoma Ball. 


Phlepsius divergens n. sp. 
Figs. 5, 5a, 5b. 


Resembling Phlepsius mimus Baker in form and coloration but larger, with 
the vertex shorter and the male plates flat and strongly divergent at the lips. 
Length of male 6.5 mm. 

Color: General ground color creamy to gray. Fuscous irrorations over 
face and entire dorsal surface without definite pattern. Femora distinctly 
twice-banded with black. Hind margin of pygofer black. 

Form: Vertex short, scarcely longer at middle than next the eye, very 
slightly angled and not carinate between disc and front. Pronotum over two 
and one-half times as long as the vertex. Elytra extending well beyond tip of 
abdomen. 

Genitalia: Male valve very short and broad, obtusely angled at the middle. 
Plates flat and broad, outer margins nearly parallel but slightly concave and 
converging; inner margins contiguous for a short distance, then sharply 
diverging, the plates together thus having the appearance of a triangular 
incision from the hind margin. Pygofer strongly exceeding plates, margins 
thick and heavy. 

Because of the very distinct male genitalia there is no hesitancy in describ- 
ing this form from a single specimen, the holotype male from Forestburg, 
Texas, taken in June, 1928. 

Type.—Cat. No. 48587, U.S. N. M. 


Phlepsius obvius, n. sp. 
Figs. 6, 6a, 6b, 6c. 


Very similar in size and form to Phlepsius mimus Baker but with the elytra 
much more finely and densely irrorate and the female genital segment broadly 
produced medially. Length of male 6.25 mm., of female 7 mm. 

Color: Dirty white to gray, heavily irrorate with brown. Hind margin of 
female genital segment dark centrally. 

Form: Vertex broad, one-half longer at the middle than next the eye, very 
bluntly angled and rather rounding to the front. Pronotum nearly twice as 
long as vertex. Elytra long, tips slightly flaring. 


436 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


Genitalia: Last ventral segment of female nearly twice as long as preceding, 
lateral angles well produced and rounded, hind margin shallowly excavated, 
the median portion with a short, blunt, slightly bifid tooth. Male valve tri- 
angular, broad and rather short. Plates short and broad, diverging at tips, 
somewhat similar to those of Phlepsius divergens n. sp. but with the tips thin 
and curled upward. Pygofer extending beyond plates, tips thin and bluntly 
pointed. 

Holotype male, Allotype female, and one female paratype from Clyde T. 
Reed, Kingsville, Texas. 

Types.—Cat. No. 48588, U.S. N. M. 


BOTANY.—Two new grasses from Mexico... Jason R. SWALLEN, 
Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated by A. 8. HircHcock.) 
Among the grasses collected by Prof. H. H. Bartlett on the Expedi- 
tion of the University of Michigan to the Sierra de San Carlos, 
Tamaulipas, Mexico, in the summer of 1930, the following two species 
are new. 


Panicum transiens Swallen, sp. nov. 


Perenne; culmi erecti 60-65 cm. alti, pubescentes vel pilosi, ramosi; vaginae 
papilloso-pilosae, quam internoda culmorum breviores, quam internoda ramo- 
rum longiores; laminae 5-12 cm. longae, 6-14 mm. latae, lanceolatae, pubes- 
centes, marginibus albis scabris, basi papilloso-ciliatae; panicula 8-15 em. 
longa, ramis adscendentibus vel divergentibus; spiculae appressae, 4 mm. 
longae, basi attenuatae, papilloso-pubescentes; gluma prima subacuta 2 mm. 
longa; gluma secunda quam spicula paulo brevior; lemma sterile spiculam 
aequans; lemma fertile 3 mm. longum, subacutum apice pubescens. 

Perennial, culms erect, 60-65 cm. tall, freely branching, pubescent or pilose; 
sheaths papillose-pilose, densely pubescent on the collar, those of the main 
culm shorter than the internodes, those of the branches much longer than the 
internodes; blades 5-12 cm. long, 6-14 mm. wide, lanceolate, flat, pubescent on 
both surfaces, the white scabrous margins papillose-ciliate toward the rounded 
base; ligule densely ciliate, about 0.5mm. long; panicles 8-15 em. long, the short- 
branches stiffly ascending or spreading; spikelets (except the terminal ones) 
short-pediceled, appressed to the branches, 4 mm. long, pointed at the apex, 
attenuate at the base, papillose-pubescent; first glume 2 mm. long, subacute, 
the margins somewhat hyaline; second glume a little shorter than the spikelet — 
exposing the fruit; sterile lemma equaling the spikelet; fruit 3 mm. long, sub- 
acute, smooth and shining, puberulent at the apex. 

Type in the United States National Herbarium No. 1501526, collected on 
Mesa de Tierra, vicinity of San José, altitude 1000 meters, Sierra de San 
Carlos, Tamaulipas, Mexico, July 19, 1930, by H. H. Bartlett (No. 10454). 

Another specimen (Bartlett 10090) collected at La Vegania, vicinity of San 
José, Tamaulipas, Mexico, is also referred to this species. 


Panicum transiens is allied to P. pedicellatum Vasey of Texas and P. 
nodatum Hitche. & Chase of Texas and northern Tamaulipas. From the 


1 Received August 11, 1931. 


ocr. 19, 1931 MATLACK: JUICE SAC OF THE ORANGE 437 


former it differs in having longer spikelets, 4 mm. long, from the latter in hav- 
ing a longer subacute first glume, and from both in being a larger plant with 
much longer and wider blades. ‘These three species compose the Pedicellata 
group which is intermediate between the subgenus Dichanthelium and true 
Panicum. 


Eragrostis longiramea Swallen, sp. nov. 


Perennis; culmi erecti, 150-160 cm. alti, laeves vel scaberuli; vaginae dense 
papilloso-pilosae; laminae 35-60 cm. longae, 4-8 mm. latae, planae, elongatae, 
attenuatae, scabrae, basi angustae et sparsim papilloso-pilosae; panicula 50-60 
em. longa, ramis gracilibus, scabris, adscendentibus vel divergentibus, in- 
ferioribus 15-25 cm. longis; spiculae 3-5 mm. longae, 5—7 florae; glumae acutae 
vel acuminatae, 2 mm. longae, carinis scabris; leommata 2 mm. longa. 

Perennial; culms apparently single, erect, 150-160 cm. tall, smooth or mi- 
nutely scaberulous; sheaths rounded on the back, shorter or longer than the 
internodes, densely papillose-pilose with spreading hairs, especially on the 
collar; blades 35-60 cm. long, 4-8 mm. wide, flat, elongate, attenuate to a fine 
point, narrowed toward the base, sparsely papillose-pilose on both surfaces near 
the base, scabrous above and toward the margins beneath, the lower surface 
otherwise smooth; panicle 50-60 cm. long, the axis glabrous or retrorsely pilose, 
the branches slender, scabrous, ascending or spreading, pilose in the axils, the 
lower ones 15-25 cm. long; spikelets 3-5 mm. long, plumbeous, the pedicels 
long and slender, spreading or sometimes appressed, 5-7 flowered, the florets 
rather crowded; glumes acute or acuminate, 2 mm. long, scabrous on the keel; 
lemmas 2 mm. long, slightly keeled toward the minutely scabrous apex, the 
lateral nerves indistinct. : 

Type in the United States National Herbarium No. 1501524, collected on 
Pico del Diablo, vicinity of Marmolejo, Sierra de San Carlos, Tamaulipas, 
Mexico, August 12, 1930, by H. H. Bartlett (No. 10910). 

One other specimen besides the type has been seen. This is Bartlett 10433 
collected on Mesa de Tierra, vicinity of San José, Sierra de San Carlos, Tamau- 
lipas, Mexico. This differs from the type in having the axis of the panicle 
retrorsely pilose. 


This species is allied to H. lugens Nees and E. polytricha Hack., differing 
from them in being a much larger plant with broader, elongate blades. 


BOTANY.—The juice sac of the orange with some observations on the 
plastids of citrus.» M. B. Matuack, U. 8. Department of Agri- 
culture. (Communicated by J. A. LECLERC.) 

The writer became interested in the structure of the juice sac of the 
orange when he observed that only a small part of the liquid contained 
therein ran out when the juice sac was pricked with a needle. He also 
noted what appeared to be a cellular structure in the inner portion of 
the juice sac when it was flattened out on a slide and observed under 
a microscope. This led him to make some sections of the sacs. The 


1 Food Research Division Contribution No. 104. Published by permission of the 
Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. Received August 1, 1931. 


438 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


only sections of which the writer is aware are those of Tschirch and 
Oesterle.2. These investigators show only sketches of the cross section 
of the juice sacs of mature and immature bitter oranges. 

The juice sacs were fixed in Carnoy’s fluid and embedded in paraffine 
by the usual method. The process had to be carried on very gradually 
in order to prevent collapse of the material. The sections were cut 20 
microns thick by means of a rotary microtome. Bismark brown was 
used as a staining agent. Haemotoxylin stains the sections well but 
makes the material more difficult to photograph. The walls of the 
juice sac are very thin and take up little of the stain, consequently 
they transmit too much light. However, by using the brown stain and 
blue light fairly satisfactory photographs were obtained. Exposures 
of one hour and twenty minutes were used. Figure 1 shows a cross 
section and Figure 2 a longitudinal section. Owing to the delicacy of 
the material it was impossible to obtain a section which was entirely 
perfect. From the standpoint of edibility this very tenderness is of 
great importance. 

While working on the juice sac it was noted that they contained nu- 
merous plastids. These cannot be shown in this type of section since 
they are removed by the fixing and mounting operations. By teasing 
out the inside portion of the fresh juice sac these plastids can easily be 
observed under the microscope. Their size and shape appear to be 
characteristic of the species from which they are obtained, which fact 
might be of use in genetical studies. For instance the tangerine, sat- 
suma, and willow-leaved mandarin oranges have spindle-shaped plas- 
tids. The grapefruit has what appears to be elaioplasts or colorless 
groups of oil-like droplets. The Sampson tangelo has a red meat like 
the tangerine, and the chromoplasts are numerous and spindle shaped. 
The Thornton tangelo has a yellow meat with a slight orange tint, 
colorless globules, as in the grapefruit, and small orange isodiametric 
plastids. Lastly the Nocatee tangelo has only the colorless globules 
or elaioplasts, and the general appearance of the meat is the same as 
that of the grapefruit. It is thought by some botanists that the king 
orange does not belong to the same species as the mandarin. Ob- 
servations disclose that, as noted above in the tangerine, satsuma, 
and willow-leaved mandarin the chromoplasts are spindle-shaped, 
whereas in the king orange they are isodiametric. 


2 Anatomischer atlas der Pharmakognosie und Nahrungsmittelkunde, 1900. Tab. 
69 and 70. Fig. 44 and 45. 


oct. 19, 1931 MATLACK: JUICE SAC OF THE ORANGE 439 


In general the plastids of citrus fruits can be divided into three 
groups. ‘The first includes isodiametric plastids as found in the king 


Figure 1.—Juice sac. X Section X 80. 

Figure 2.—Juice sac. L Section X 80, 

Figure 3.—King orange. Chromoplasts X 440. 
Figure 4.—Satsuma orange. Chromoplasts X 440. 
Figure 5.—Grapefruit. Elaioplasts ? x 440. 


440 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


orange, three varieties of kumquats and the numerous varieties of the 
sweet orange. In the second are the spindle-shaped plastids of the 
satsuma, tangerine, mandarin, calamondin, rangpur lime, and the 
Sampson tangelo. ‘The third group includes the colorless type as 
found in the grapefruit, bittersweet, sour orange, lemon, acid lime, 
Citrus trifoliata, citron (Etrog, Parish and commercial), Siamese 
pummelo and citrange. The Indian Red Pummelo is an exception in 
that it contains in addition to elaioplasts, pink crystals which appear at 
times to be surrounded by a pink stroma. Figures 3, 4 and 5 illustrate 
the three respective types of plastids. 

These observations are presented at this time in the hope that some 
one will see fit to carry the studies further. 


ENTOMOLOGY .—-A new ant from Porto Rico Wm. M. Mann, 
U.S. National Museum. 


Among ants received by the U. 8. Department of Agriculture for 
identification occurred the following interesting new species: 


Cerapachys (Syscia) seini, new species. 


Worker. Length 2mm. (Fig. 1). 

Head about one-third longer than broad, as broad in front as behind, with 
slightly convex sides and strongly excavated posterior border and angulate 
corners. Antennal scapes extending less than half the distance to occipital 
corners; rather strongly curved and clavate; first funicular joint a little longer 
than broad; funicular joints 2 to 7 transverse, increasing in size toward apex; 
terminal joint as long as the 3 preceding joints together. Eyes lacking. 
Mandibles stout, acuminate at tips. Thorax in profile very feebly convex, 
from above nearly three times as long as broad; promesonotal suture discern- 
ible though very shallow; sides and posterior border of epinotum narrowly 
margined, subangulate above; petiole in profile as long as postpetiole with a 
large and flat anteroventral spine; from above two-thirds as broad as post- 
petiole; postpetiole in profile considerably deeper than petiole, feebly convex 
above; from above one and one-half times as broad behind as in front. First 
segment of gaster two and one half times as long as remaining segments to- 
gether. Legs short with thick femora and tibiae. 

Subopaque. 

Head, thorax, petiole and postpetiole coarsely, somewhat rugosely punc- 
tate; first segment of gaster with large shallow punctures largest and most 
dense anteriorly; the surface between sublucid; legs rather strongly punctate. 

Head, body and appendages with abundant recumbent white silky hairs 
and a few longer and coarser sub-erect hairs. 

Color light yellowish brown. 

Type: Cat. No. 48648 U.S. N. M. 

Type locality: Porto Rico Insular Experiment Station, Rio Piedras, P. R. 


1 Received August 15, 1931. 


oer, 19,1931 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 44] 


This species is described from a series collected by Francisco Sein in soil 
about the roots of sugar cane. 

Although the type locality of this species is Porto Rico and it is the first 
record of an ant of this subgenus in the New World, I believe it very probable 
that it is endemic to New Guinea and has been introduced into Porto Rico in 
soil with sugar cane. The other species of Syscza occur in Australia, Malaya 
and Ceylon, with the exception of szlvestrii Wheeler, which was described from 
Hawaii. I think it possible that the latter species also will later be found 
endemic to New Guinea. 

C. seinz is one of the smallest of the species; the promesonotal suture is more 
distinct than in the other known forms and the punctation of the gaster finer 
and shallower with the area between smooth instead of rugulose. C. silvestri7 
is larger and has the head larger in proportion to its width and the antennal 
scapes longer, stouter and less curved. 


Fig. 1. Cerapachys (Syscia) seini, n. sp., worker. Drawn by ELeanor A. CaRLIN. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


THE ACADEMY 


239TH MEETING 


The 239th meeting of the AcapEmy was held in the Assembly Hall of the 
Cosmos Club on Thursday, March 19, 1931, Vice-President Curtis pre- 
siding. About 200 persons were present. 

Program: Joun C. Murriam, President of the Carnegie Institution of 
Washington: The unity of nature as illustrated by the Grand Canyon.—The 
speaker described the educational features provided at the Grand Canyon 
for the purpose of assisting visitors in a critical study of the formation and 
structure of the canyon walls. 


442 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


240TH MEETING 


The 240th meeting of the Acaprmy was held in the Assembly Hall of the 
Cosmos Club on Thursday, April 16, 1931, Vice-President Curtis presiding. 

Program: O. Ei. Baxer, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, U. 8. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture: Changes in diet affect agriculture.—The economic depres- 
sion during 1930 resulted in a downward trend in the consumption of several 
foods by the American people toward the standards that plowaies during 
the war years and the years immediately preceding. 

The World War caused changes in the diet of the American people. The 
principal change after the war was a notable decline in the use of bread, of 
corn meal, and other cereal foods and an increase in the consumption of milk, 
of meat, of sugar, of fresh vegetables, and of fruit. Apparently the higher 
wages and salaries of city people since the war has enabled them to eat more 
of the expensive foods. 

During the five war years, 1914 to 1918, the average consumption per 
person of wheat, corn, oats, rye, buckwheat and barley for human food 
totaled about 310 pounds a year, whereas during the last five years 1924— 
1928 it was only about 230 pounds. This is a decrease of 80 pounds, or over 
a fourth. On the other hand, the average American was eating until recently 
nearly a third more sugar, probably a fourth more milk and dairy products, 
nearly a fifth more meat, possibly a fifth more vegetables, and a tenth 
more fruit. 

These changes in diet have had a marked effect upon the need for farm 
land. If man could live on sugar alone it would require only about one-third 
of an acre of sugar beets to provide the amount of energy in the food of the 
average American for a year, but it would require three-fourths of an acre 
of corn or potatoes, an acre and a half of wheat or tomatoes, two to three 
acres of crops if he lived on milk alone, about the same acreage of corn and 
other crops if he ate only pork and lard, and 12 to 16 acres of crops if he lived 
wholly on beef and veal. 

This comparison of acreage required to produce an equal quantity of food, 
measured in calories, shows that much more land is required to produce a 
diet based largely on meat than one based on wheat, corn or the other cereals. 
It now requires over two acres of crops to feed the average American, but 
only one acre to feed the average German, one-half acre to feed a Chinaman, 
and one-fourth an acre, a Japanese. ‘This is owing largely to the difference 
in diet, except that the difference between China and Japan is owing to much 
higher crop yields 1 in Japan. , 

The decrease in the United States since the war years in consumption per 
person of cereal foods, principally wheat flour and corn meal, has reduced 
the area of these crops needed to feed a person by about one-twelfth of an 
acre; while the increase in consumption of milk, vegetables, fruits, and of 
meat prior to 1929 increased the area per person needed to produce these 
products by a quarter of an acre. Nearly all the increase in sugar consump- 
tion has come from Cuba, Porto Rico, Hawaii and the Philippines, so it 
has not been included in the estimate. The net result, therefore, of this 
change in diet was an increase in crop land needed to feed each person of 
about one-sixth of an acre. Meanwhile, the population of the United States 
increased from 95 million to 120 million, which, after allowing for the change 
in diet, indicates that about 50 million acres more crop land would be needed 
to feed our people than during the war, provided no changes occurred in 


oe7!) 2195/1931 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 443 


production per acre. But the fact is that there are only about 6 million 
more acres of crops used to produce the nation’s food than were used during 
the war. What has produced this result? 

First, the use of the automobile and the tractor has reduced the number 
of horses and mules in the United States by over seven million and released 
for other uses probably 20 to 25 million acres of crop land formerly used to 
feed these horses and mules that have disappeared. Most of this land thus 
released is used to feed meat and milk animals. 

Secondly, there has been a great improvement in the amount of meat and 
milk produced per unit of feed consumed. 

Thirdly, there has been a shift from the less productive classes of animals 
per unit of feed consumed to the more productive classes,—notably from 
beef cattle to dairy cattle and hogs. 

Fourthly, there has been a shift from the less productive crops to the more 
productive. 

Fifthly, there has been a little increase in the yield per acre of many of 
the crops. 

In brief, the application of science to agriculture, which has taken place 
more rapidly since the War than ever before, has enabled the American farmer 
to provide a more expensive diet to an increasing number of people from a 
practically stationary acreage of crop land. (Author’s abstract.) 


241sT MEETING 


The 241st meeting of the AcapEMy was held in the Assembly Hall of the 
Cosmos Club on Thursday, May 21, 1931, at 8:15 p.m., President Coss 
presiding. About 125 persons were present. 

Program: E. D. Merrity, Director, New York Botanical Garden: 

Plants and animals of the Philippines and neighboring islands—How they 
came to be where they are.—Introductory to a general discussion of the present- 
day geographic distribution of plants and animals in the Philippines and in 
neighboring islands, the speaker discussed in general terms the relative sizes 
of the geographic areas involved, geologic history of the region, hydrography, 
climate, wind, and rainfall. The bearing of endemism on the general subject 
was stressed, indicating that those areas still covered by primary forests 
were most important, and that much of the present-day vegetation in the 
settled areas represents introduced elements. In the plant kingdom the 
percentage of endemism in the primary forest exceeds 80 per cent while in 
the settled areas and secondary forests it scarcely exceeds 10 per cent. 

Attention was called to the fact that man has been a most important 
disturbing factor in reference to the distribution of both plants and animals 
in Malaysia. In drawing conclusions as to biogeographic relationships, 
emphasis was placed on the importance of assembling data covering all 
groups of plants and animals, for the reason that distributional data apper- 
taining to one group frequently shows entirely different biogeographic rela- 
tionships as compared with other groups. As an illustration, if one studies 
the Dipterocarpaceae, one would conclude that the Philippine flora was 
dominently western Malaysian in origin, but if one studied the Myrtaceae, 
one would conclude that it was dominently Australian. For purposes of 
discussion three areas were indicated; western Malaysia or Sundaland 
(Borneo, Sumatra, Java, etc.); eastern Malaysia or Papualand (New Guiana 
and adjacent islands); and Wallacea, the region between Wallace’s and 
Weber’s lines separating Sundaland from Papualand. Data were presented 


444 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


covering the present known geographic distribution of various groups of 
insects, fresh-water and land molluscs, fresh-water fishes, batrachians, 
reptiles, birds, mammals, and plants. In general there is a close correlation 
in the present distribution in all of these groups as between the Philippines 
and both eastern and western Malaysia or Papualand and Sundaland. 
Asiatic types are found to diminish rapidly in numbers and in importance as 
one proceeds eastward, and Australian types similarly decrease as one pro- 
ceeds westward and northward in Malaysia. The apparently anomalous 
distribution of plants and animals in Malaysia and the Philippines, with 
much stronger Australian elements in the Philippines than in Java and the 
other Sunda Islands, was explained by the probable existence during Pleisto- 
cene and Pliocene times of two more or less stable continental areas repre- 
sented by the two great continental shelves as delimited by the present 200- 
meter line. To the west the Sunda Islands (Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, 
including the Palawan-Calamian group in the Philippines) were at times con- 
nected with Asia, and New Guiana had the same history with relation to 
Australia. 

Between these two stable areas there was apparently an unstable constantly 
archipelagic area which has existed since Tertiary times, the practical absence 
of mammals in Australia indicating no direct connections between Asia and 
Australia since the mammals attained dominance as a group. This insular 
area has inhibited direct east and west intermigration of both plants and 
animals in Malaysia as a whole. This area, called ‘‘Wallacea,” is approxi- 
mately delimited on the west by Wallace’s line and on the east by Weber’s 
line. These two “lines,” originally proposed as delimiting or separating 
the Asiatic and Australian faunas, are approximately the eastern boundary 
of Sundaland and the western boundary of Papualand, where the two old 
continental areas impinge on the intermediate unstable insular area. Wal- 
lacea includes all of the Philippines (except the Palawan-Calamian group), 
Celebes, Moluccas, Lesser Sunda Islands and Gilolo. 

The two stable areas, Sundaland and Papualand, are characterized by 
the presence of vast continental shelves with a very even submarine topog- 
raphy, the water averaging less than 100 meters in depth in these great 
shelf seas. In contrast to this, Wallacea has an entirely different submarine 
topography, being characterized by the presence of numerous great deeps, 
with depths as great as 5000 to 6000 meters, these deeps being more or less 
parallel to the rows of raised islands as pointed out by Molengraff. Inter- 
migration has apparently been in general north and south within Wallacea 
rather than east and west across it. Thus many Australian types were able 
to reach far to the north in the Philippines, but few were able to reach western 
Malaysia, although Java is much closer to Australia than is the Philippine 
group. There was apparently a similar north and south migration of both 
eastern and western Malaysian types via the Philippines, and some from 
each area succeeded in negotiating the two longer sides of this hypothetical 
triangle rather than east and west across its comparatively narrow base, 
which is represented by the Lesser Sunda Islands. 

In closing, the speaker discussed Dr. Lam’s application of Wegener’s 
theory of continental shift to the genetic phytogeography of the Malay 
Archipelago. According to this theory the Australian region shifted north- 
ward, coming into collision with the Asiatic continent in the Pleistocene. 
After the collision the two continents commenced exchanging plants and 
animals. Dr. Lam considers that the theory of an intermediate unstable 


ocr. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 445 


insular area of long geologic duration is unsatisfactory in that it gives no 
real explanation of the principal problem involved; that is why two regions 
having such remarkably different floras and faunas as Australia and Asia 
lie so close together in present geography. (Author’s abstract.) 


CHARLES THom, Recording Secretary. 


BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
75/TH MEETING 


The 757th meeting was held in the New Assembly Hall of the Cosmos 
Club January 24, 1931 at 8:10 p.m., with President Werrmore in the chair 
and 130 persons present. New member elected: Epmunp McNatty. 

A. A. DoouitTLe exhibited two hermetically sealed jars containing grow- 
ing algae and mosses, which had been sealed in 1924. 

E. P. WALKER reported four nests with eggs of black-crowned night herons 
in the large open flight cage at the Zoological Park. 

Program: A. H. Howey: Exhibition of paintings of Florida birds—The 
speaker showed a number of water-color and oil paintings by F. L. Jaquzs 
of the American Museum of Natural History, which will be used to illustrate 
his forthcoming book on the birds of Florida. 

VERNON BaILey: General features of the Upper Mississippt River Wild 
life and Fish Refuge-——The Upper Mississippi River Wild Life and Fish 
Refuge, including the island flood lands and waters of the Mississippi River 
Valley from Lake Pepin, in southern Minnesota, to near Rock Island, Illinois, 
about 300 miles of irregular, scattered, and broken areas of land and water, 
was set aside by Congress for a great experiment in conservation and wild 
life study. Money was appropriated for purchase of the cheaper bottom 
lands not suitable for agriculture but well adapted to game and native wild 
life. Upto date about half of the land needed for the refuge has been secured, 
enough to start some experiments in restocking and building up the native 
fauna. ‘The general plan is to keep many extensive areas as absolute sanc- 
tuaries, enough to maintain abundance of native life for the whole region, 
but outside of these areas to allow enough hunting and trapping to remove the 
excess of each species so they will not overpopulate and destroy their supply 
of food and cover. The refuge is on one of the greatest migratory highways 
of waterfowl in the country. 

To study the present condition of its native life Mr. and Mrs. BaiLtry 
spent the summer of 1930 at various points along the length of the refuge. 
Mr. BarLey grew up in the Upper Mississippi Valley, so its general life has 
been familiar to him for many years. He saw it first from a covered wagon 
in 1869, but this part of the valley was a well settled country then and his 
father had to go 30 miles north of Minneapolis before finding a homestead 
of choice land. The changes in bird and animal life and the possibilities of 
the region as a sanctuary were described. (Author’s abstract.) 

F. M. Unwver: Waterfowl and reptile life of the Upper Mississippi River 
Wild Life and Fish Refuge—The Bureau of Biological Survey conducted 
preliminary biological investigations in the Upper Mississippi River Wild 
Life Refuge during the summers of 1926, 1927, and 1928. Two biologists 
worked together from a headquarters boat each year. The principal purpose 
was to determine the type, abundance, and distribution of waterfowl foods, 
and factors affecting their development throughout the Refuge. Fluctuating 
water levels were found to be the most important single factor in retarding 
the development of waterfowl foods. 


446 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


During the course of this work about 400 species of plants (principally 
aquatic and moist-soil types) were studied. Notes on the water-fowl indicate 
that the once rare wood duck is now the most abundant of 14 species of ducks 
recorded in the Refuge during the nesting season; 41 species and races of 
reptiles and amphibians have been recorded from the counties which the 
refuge traverses; 90 species and races of fishes and 1 lamprey have been taken 
in the refuge, and 27 additional fishes and 1 more lamprey have been recorded 
in adjacent tributary streams. Sixty kinds of mussels and five species of 
crayfishes have been recorded from this area. 

The Refuge will probably be greatly altered in the near future by the 
construction of a series of dams to facilitate navigation in the Upper Missis- 
sippi River. The final effects of that program are problematic. (Auwthor’s 
abstract.) 


758TH MEETING 


The 758th meeting was held in the New Assembly Hall of the Cosmos 
Club February 7, 1931 at 8:15 p.m., with President WrtTmore in the chair 
and 96 persons present. New members elected: H. C. Bryant, THEODORE 
Koppanyl, W. C. MANSFIELD. 

W. B. BELL reported that the musk oxen recently introduced into Alaska 
were adapting themselves readily to the new environment and gaining in 
weight. 

A. WETMORE announced that it was planned to open the new reptile house 
at the National Zoological Park on February 28. 

Program: T. GILBERT PxrarRson: Adventures in bird protection—The 
speaker gave his first public address on the subject of bird protection just 
27 years ago in Washington, D. C. From this point the history of bird 
protection here and abroad was sketched. 

In Europe bird protection usually means the protection of game on large 
estates. The first known organization to take up bird protection was in 
France and was for the purpose of controlling wolves. It dates back to the 
time of Charlemagne. 

The present International Committee on Bird Protection has on its agenda 
consideration of such problems as the protection of song birds, oil pollution, 
sizes of ‘leads’ to be used in shooting, and others. Game birds are fre- 
quently abundant on estates but the protection of song birds usually is a 
county matter, the protected species being listed on schedules, and one given 
protection in one county may not receive it in another. In Scotland no 
public shooting is permitted except between tides. England has a Royal 
Society for the Protection of Birds, with volunteer ‘“‘watchers’’ who accumu- 
late much useful information. France also has a Society for Bird Protection 
and last year the speaker attended the celebration at the establishment of 
their 1000th sanctuary. These are nothing more than plots of land privately 
owned where the owner agrees to protect the birds. Hawks are very scarce 
in Europe, being killed at every opportunity. Small song birds are not 
accorded legal protection, and in one year in Belgium, according to official 
figures, between three and four million were killed for food. 

Referring to American efforts at wild life protection, the speaker gave first 
the history of Pelican Island, Florida, established by order of President 
Roosevelt in 1904. Pelicans have at times suffered heavily both at the hands 
of nature and man. During the war their destruction was urged as a con- 
servation measure but an investigation showed that their food was almost 
100 per cent menhaden, fish of no value as human food. 


oct. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 447 


The speaker also dealt with the efforts to establish a national park in the 
Everglades, the efforts to preserve the Heath Hen on Martha’s Vineyard, 
Massachusetts, and the success achieved in establishing the Paul J. Rainey 
Wild Life Sanctuary in Louisiana and the Antelope Refuge in Nevada. 

H. W. Teruune: Wild life protection in Alaska.—The Alaska Game Com- 
mission is badly hampered through lack of wardens and operating funds. 
During its five years’ operations, the revenues from sale of licenses, fines 
and forfeitures have increased from $19,000 in the fiscal year 1926, to $53,000 
in 1930, while funds appropriated for the work have increased from $55,000 
in 1926 to $97,000 in 1930. Starting with a force of 5 field wardens the Com- 
mission now has 10, 3 having been added during the present year. In addi- 
tion to this force of regularly appointed full time men, there are about 90 
licensed guides who are ex-officio wardens. The enforcement work of the 
guides, however, is largely preventative, as they are not authorized to incur 
expenses chargeable to the enforcement appropriation. Seven wardens with 
a district of over 90,000 square miles each, during the fiscal year 1930, 
travelled 55,000 miles in the course of enforcement. The Alaska Game Com- 
mission is encouraged in the work by the Courts meting jail sentences in 
addition to heavy fines in nearly fifty per cent of convictions. 

Game conditions, generally, are improving. Since 1915 game has increased 
in nearly every section of the territory. There are no grounds for the present 
hysteria over the depletion of the large brown bears of Alaska, as they also 
are increasing. Some apprehension is felt, however, regarding the mountain 
sheep, in whose range the coyotes are rapidly advancing. Increasing reports 
of the scattering of some of the herds of sheep by coyotes are viewed with 
alarm. Incidentally, recent reports state that two coyotes were taken in 
the winter of 1929-30 near Point Barrow, the top of the continent. 

Furs constitute one of the principal resources of Alaska, standing fourth 
in exports. Fur exports for 1929, amounting to 43 millions, were exceeded 
only by fisheries products with 463 millions, copper 83 millions, gold 7 mil- 
lions. A study of the records of furs shipped from Alaska during the past 
18 years indicates a well defined cycle of plenty and scarcity. (Author’s 


abstract.) 


759TH MEETING 


The 759th meeting was held in the auditorium of the New National 
Museum February 28, 1931 at 8:10 p.m., with Vice-President JAcKsoN in 
the chair and 280 persons present. 

Program: R. L. Dirmars: Motion picture studies of reptiles (illustrated)— 
The speaker sketched the advances in the last thirty years in the classifica- 
tion of snakes and in the treatment of snake poisoning. He then showed 
three reels of excellent moving pictures taken at the New York Zoological 
Park, illustrating (1) tortoises and lizards; (2) harmless snakes; and (3) 
poisonous lizards and snakes, accompanying the pictures with a running 
account of the animals’ habits. 


760TH MEETING 


The 760th meeting was held in the New Assembly Hall of the Cosmos 
Club March 7, 1931 at 8:10 p.m., with President WErTmor:E in the chair and 
90 persons present. 


448 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


FRANK THONE exhibited several recently published books on biological 
subjects including SKENE’s School botany, WHEELER’s Demons of the dust, 
Hornapay’s Thirty yeors’ war for wild life, Kupo’s Handbook of protozoology, 
and Furertses’ Abyssinian birds and mammals. 

W. M. Mann stated that the newly-opened reptile house has been visited 
by a large number of people. 

E. P. WALKER mentioned a recent shipment of Canada geese, white-tailed 
deer, and three fine buck antelope, received from the Biological Survey. 

Program: C. H. 'TowNsEND: A recent expedition to the Galapagos Islands 
and studies of Galapagos tortoises —The speaker has been interested for several 
years in an attempt to save from extermination the tortoises of the Galapagos 
Islands. For many years these tortoises furnished food to whalers, as well 
as to many other vessels. Examination of log books of whalers at New Bed- 
ford indicates that Baur’s estimate that ten million tortoises were taken from 
the islands is very likely not too large. ‘Tortoises were practically gone 
from the accessible islands by the last quarter of the last century. They 
were also harried by hunters from Ecuador who killed them for the oil. In 
1928 a vessel of the Bureau of Fisheries, acting with funds furnished by the 
New York Zoological Society, visited the Galapagos Islands to secure tortoises 
for zoological gardens. On Duncan Island none were found, but on Albemarle 
they were still found in numbers. Altogether 180 specimens were brought 
back, some of which were kept at New York while others were widely dis- 
tributed to zoological gardens in the southern tier of States and in Bermuda, 
Honolulu, and Australia. No specimens weighing more than 80 pounds 
were brought back owing to difficult conditions of transport on the islands, 
and most of them were very much smaller. In general, it was found that 
in captivity they doubled or more than doubled their weight in two years. 
A specimen kept by the speaker at his home would go every evening to a 
corner of the yard next to a fence or log, scratch off the grass, and lie down 
on the raw earth. ‘This practice was no doubt safe in its natural home, but 
was not so in the much cooler climate of New York. Consequently every 
evening for two weeks the turtle was driven into the garage where he burrowed 
into a pile of straw. At the end of that time he learned to do this for himself. 
In 1930 the speaker, with other naturalists, accompanied Vincent Astor on 
an expedition to the Galapagos Islands on which other specimens were 
collected. Photographs of the tortoises in the wild state and in captivity 
were shown, and moving picture films taken on the Vincent Astor Expedition. 


761ST MEETING 


The 761st meeting was held in the New Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club 
March 21, 1931 at 8:15 p.m., with Vice-President Jackson in the chair and 
63 persons present. 

C. W. STILEs gave a brief resumé of the results of a 5000-mile trip through 
the southern States in search of hookworm. Newspaper reports that hook- 
worm has been eradicated in the United States are incorrect. The pupils 
of 97 schools in seven States were examined. Infection varying from 1.4 
per cent to 98 per cent was found, with an average of 32 per cent. Deplor- 
able conditions of poverty and destitution were met in many places. 

F. THone exhibited several recent publications: P. Ereprr’s Animals 
looking at you and Animal children, and W. S. Bronson’s Fingerfins and 
Paddlewings, the two latter, describing the life of a sargassum fish and the 
Galapagos penguin respectively, being written for children. 


Ger 19), 1931 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 449 


Program: Evin CHEVERLANGE: Exhibition of paintings of fishes of Tahiti. 
—The speaker exhibited a series of colored paintings he had recently made 
and described his method of work. As far as possible, the fish were caught 

and kept alive in aquaria in order to observe their natural colors, which in 

many cases change greatly after death. He also studied them under water 
and made sketches there. By taking in his mouth a tube two or three 
fathoms long, supported by a float, through which he breathed, and with a 
clothespin on his nose, he found it possible to tay under water for half an 
hour without ill effects. 

D. E. BucxineHam: The fish poison Dervis. EE ois elliptica is one of the 
several varieties of poisonous plants employed by the natives of the Malaysian 
Archipelago as a fish poison. The root of the plant is bruised and thrown 
into a stream where fish abound; within a few minutes, the fish are stimulated 
and swim in a frightened manner; then they appear on the surface either 
stunned or apparently dead. This method of fishing is illegal but is carried 
on secretly with success. 

In other tropical countries, including South and Central America, the 
plant Cube (Lonchocarous nicou), as well as many other plants, produces 
this poisonous effect on fish. The active principle of Derris and Cube is 
rotenone, a white crystalline compound, having the formula C2y.H».O,. It 
is insoluble in water, but soluble in acetone, chloroform, and many other 
organic solvents. Rotenone is extremely toxic to fish, one part in twenty 
million parts water killing gold fish in three hours; it is also highly toxic to 
insects and is effective both as a contact and as a stomach insecticide. 

Derris extract has been used as an arrow poison by the head hunters of 
Borneo and the Amazon River. Because of its reputation as a poison used 
by uncivilized tribes, the writer has made many experiments to determine 
its effect on domestic animals when administered by the mouth. 

The usefulness of rotenone as well as the extract of Derris as an insecticide 
would be seriously curtailed if it were markedly toxic to warm blooded 
animals; if, for instance, its action were similar to that of curare, strychnine, 
or similar drugs. The ideal insecticide is one that is toxic to insects but 
harmless to domestic animals. 

Both rotenone and Derris extract have been proved, conclusively, to be 
non-poisonous to all domestic animals in any reasonable dose. Remarkable 
effects have been noted when Derris extract, in three per cent dilution in 
talcum, is applied as an insecticide on dogs and cats for fleas, lice, and ticks. 
Rotenone and Derris extract are proved to be valuable new insecticides, in 
both agriculture and veterinary medicine. 

There is a large annual production of cultivated crops of Derris in Sumatra 
and the Malay States. The roots mature full toxicity in twenty months. 
An American market is sure to follow the fine results obtained with rotenone 
as well as the toxic extract of Derris. (Awthor’s abstract.) 

R. E. Tarsett: Control over mosquito breeding.—Different species of mos- 
quitoes differ greatly in habits, on which methods of control must be based. 
The fundamental point is the elimination of water, the breeding place, as 
far as possible, and the control of the remainder with oil. For the author’s 
purpose, mosquitoes are divided into four groups—malarial, domestic, wood- 
land, and temporary pool species. Of three species of Anopheles in the 
southeastern states only A. quadrimaculatus is important. It breeds only 
in quiet waters, feeds only after dark, has a flight range of about a mile, and 
appears to have a homing instinct in connection with egg laying. Like some 


450 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


other species, it will enter a house through the chimney but can be kept out 
by hanging up a bag of naphthalene balls. The larvae feed on the surface 
of water and can be killed by a light dust of paris green (1 pound per acre). 
The principal domestic mosquitoes are Culex sp. and in the South Aedes 
aegyptt. ‘The former breed in any foul water, even in underground water 
containers which may be difficult to find or to reach; the latter only in man- 
made utensils in or around inhabited dwellings. The woodland species breed 
in open water and their habits vary greatly. The species breeding only in 
temporary pools lay their eggs in depressions where they remain dormant 
until rain. Development takes only a few days. Control measures in a 
given area usually do not extend far enough to reach the species of this group. 
In conclusion the speaker showed a film illustrating the life cycle of Aedes 
aegyptt. 


762ND MEETING 


The 762nd meeting was held in the New Assembly Hall of the Cosmos 
Club April 4, 1931 at 8:10 p.m., with Vice-President Jackson in the chair 
and 42 persons present. 

J. M. Aupricu stated that during a trip in the West last summer he found 
that in one locality bluebirds were nesting in about one-half the drop-front 
mail boxes. 

Program: H. 8. Davis: Progress in experimental fish culture.—In this 
country fish culture has been confined to the propagation of game fish and 
goldfish. At present emphasis is laid on the planting of older fish than 
formerly, in proper situations, and on making lakes more productive. Trout 
are grown for market in large numbers, and other fish may be later. There 
is an experimental station devoted to trout in Vermont, one devoted to pond 
culture in Iowa, and another in West Virginia devoted to both. Pictures 
were exhibited showing hatcheries and also work in the sloughs in the Upper 
Mississippi Refuge. 

Discussed by E. P. WALKER. 

C. R. Lucas: Commercial fish farming in the United States.—There are 
over 1,000 nurseries and hatcheries in the United States, 455 of which are 
governmental. The value of their product is over $2,000,000 annually. The 
first hatchery for trout was established in 1864, and there are now over 100 
establishments; that for goldfish shortly after 1878 (now 44 establishments) ; 
that for pond fish in 1929 (now 11). 

H. B. Humpurey: The relation of trees and other vegetation to stream flow.— 
The speaker presented the results of observations on the rate of discharge of 
a small stream near his home at Cabin John, Maryland, made last autumn 
and subsequently. These observations show that there was an immediate 
relationship between sunlight and stream discharge, and that after the trees 
and other vegetation lost their foliage the discharge increased greatly. 
During 36 hours of continuous observation on 27-29 September, it was found 
that vegetation exerted an increasing pull on the water supply from about 
10 a.m. until late afternoon, and that no water was running from about 3 p.m. 
to7 p.m. (Full report in Monthly Weather Review 58: 397-398. 1930.) 

In discussion, R. M. Linsey stated that owing to the small amount of fresh 
water in the Potomac, crabs had been common last summer nearly up to 
Alexandria. 


oct. 19, 1931 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 451 


763RD MEETING 


The 763rd meeting was held in the New Assembly Hall of the Cosmos 
Club April 18, 1931 at 8:10 p.m., with Vice-President StiuEs in the chair and 
75 persons present. New member elected: Louise W. Cocke. 

Program: W. A. Horrman: A consideration of educational, especially bio- 
logical, progress in China, prefaced by some general remarks on the country and 
its people (illustrated)——The speaker described the general features of 
Chinese geography, language, and customs. Lingnan University (formerly 
Canton Christian College) is now 43 years old. It is more Chinese than the 
other fifteen Christian colleges and gives a typical Chinese education. It 
includes a university (with 300 pupils, including 50 girls), high school, primary, 
and kindergarten, with a total of 1100 pupils. Two thirds of the college 
staff of 75 are Chinese. The university has specialized in science and has 
the largest herbarium in China and large zoological collections. Like other 
Chinese universities, it is greatly hampered by the lack of published litera- 
ture. The scientific organizations of China were mentioned and discussed 
briefly, and an account given of the explorations of Lingnan University 
in Hainan. | 

M. K. Brapy: The Breeding of Salamanders (illustrated).—This paper 
will appear in full in the Novitates of the American Museum of Natural 
History. 


764TH MEETING 
52ND ANNUAL MEETING 


The 764th regular and 52nd annual meeting was held in the Assembly Hall 
of the Cosmos Club May 2, 1931 at 8:15 p.m., with Vice-President Jackson 
in the chair and ten persons present. New member elected: S. W. GrISER. 

The minutes of the last annual meeting were read and approved. The 
reports of the Recording Secretary and Corresponding Secretary were read 
and ordered placed on file. The recommendation of the Council that the 
Treasurer’s report and the report of the Auditors be postponed until the first 
fall meeting was approved. 

Dr. OBERHOLSER for the Board of Trustees stated that the status of the 
Permanent Fund is unchanged. 

Mr. WALKER made an oral report for the Committee on Communications. 

Messrs H. C. Futter and W. H. BAuu were appointed Tellers, and the 
election took place, resulting as follows. 

President, H. H. T. Jackson: Vice-Presidents, C. E. CHampuiss, C. W. 
Stites, T. E. Snyper, H. C. FuLuer; Recording Secretary, S. F. Buak3; 
Corresponding Secretary, W. H. Wuits; Treasurer, F. C. Lincotn; Members 
of Council, W. R. Maxon, A. A. Doo.itrie, I. Horrman, E. P. WALKER, 
T. H. KEARNEY. 

S. F. Buaxe, Recording Secretary. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


Dr. Hitmar Opvm, of the Geological Survey of Denmark, Copenhagen, was 
in Washington during part of September studying Eocene and Upper Cretac- 
eous fossils at the National Museum and the organization and methods of the 
ground water division of the Geological Survey. 


Dr. ALEXANDER WETMORE has been elected a member of the California 
Academy of Sciences. 


452 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 17 


The first trial expedition of Aeroarctic in the arctic utilized the Graf Zep- 
pelin during a six-days’ flight of 8,000 miles leaving Berlin July 25 and re- 
turning July 30. The course was approximately Friedrichshafen, Lenin- 
grad, Archangel, Franz Josef Archipelago, Northern Land, Taymir, Novaya 
Zemlya, and return to Archangel and Friedrichshafen. LyunGpaut of Sweden, 
SmituH of the United States Coast Guard, and Lincoln Ellsworth representing 
the American Geographical Society took part in the magnetic observations 
which were in charge of LIUNGDAHL, the other two men assisting. There were 
92 determinations of magnetic horizontal intensity obtained with the double- 
compass supplied by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism and eight 
observations of declination with a Thomson compass. All reports indicate the 
trial expedition to have been an extremely satisfactory one and ECKENER has 
already assured the General Secretary of the Society of his desire to have the 
longer flight as originally proposed realized, if possible, next year. 


For its International Polar Year Expedition the Canadian Meteorological 
Service has already received a special grant to apply this year for the purchase 
of instruments and for the preliminary arrangements. The main magnetic 
station will be at Chesterfield Inlet. Four or five other stations will be estab- 
lished principally for meteorological work. 


The earth-current photographic registrations started at Tucson in March 
with the cooperation of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company, the 
Mountain States Telephone and Telegraph Company, the Coast and Geodetic 
Survey and the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism are continuing very 
satisfactorily. 


The first of the coded messages regarding auroral display and intensity 
which are now a regular part of the daily URsIGRAM was received from College, 
Alaska, August 15 as applying to the date August 13. 


The Nautilus of the Wilkins-Ellsworth Trans-Arctic Submarine Expedition 
left Bergen August 5 and arrived at Spitzbergen August 15. Owing to the 
lateness of the season it was not possible to cruise in the arctic ice longer than 
about three weeks. ‘The vessel returned to Spitzbergen and after repairs 
proceeded to Norway. In the scientific staff were B. VILLINGER who spent 
some three weeks with Dr. VeEninGc-MEINEsz in the study of the gravity ap- 
paratus, Dr. SvERDRUP of Bergen and F. M. Souxs of the Department of Ter- 
restrial Magnetism. 


Dr. and Mrs. Joun C. Merriam after spending the greater part of the 
summer in Europe returned to Quebec August 26 and proceeded directly to 
California. 


J. M. Stace of the British Meteorological Office came to Washington July 
25 to visit the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism and discuss matters 
pertaining to the International Polar Year. He left July 31 to return home 
by way of Toronto. A letter written after he returned states that despite the 
unfavorable economic conditions he finds everyone is quite optimistic as re- 
gards the program of the International Polar Year. 


Dr. J. E. I. Carrns who has recently received his degree at Trinity College 
resumed his work in the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, June 29. 


OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS 


THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND 
_ AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS 


Tuesday, October 20 The Anthropological Society 
Wednesday, October 21 The Washington Society of Engineers 
The Medical Society 


Saturday, October 24 The Philosophical Society 
Wednesday, October 28 The Geological Society 
The Medical Society 
Saturday, October 31 The Biological Society 
Tuesday, November 3 The Botanical Society - 
Wednesday, November 4 The Washington Society of Engineers 
The Medical Society 


The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if 
sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month. 


OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY 


President: N. A. Coss, Bureau of Plant Industry. 

Corresponding Secretary: Pau E. Hows, Bureau of Animal Industry. 
Recording Secretary: CHARLES THOM, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. 
Treasurer: Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 


CONTENTS 


ORIGINAL PAPERS 


Chemistry.—Further studies of kolm. R. C. Weuts and R. E, Stmvens......... 4 409 
Paleontology.—Contributions to the paleontology of Peru, V. Nodosaria pozoensis 

W. Berry, n.sp. WiILtLARp Burry...... eee ee ei ee 415 
Zoology.—New pocket gophers from Arizona and Utah. E. A. GOLDMAN........ 416 
Mammalogy.—Akodon chacoensis, a new cricetine rodent from Argentina. H. 

HaBoLp SHAMEL. 5.2.05 00. hk ee ee, 427 
Entomology.—New Jassinae, with notes on other species. P. W. Oman SO ts tage 430 
Botany.—Two new grasses from Mexico. Jason R. SWALIEN:.. ooo niet OO 
Botany.—The juice sac of the orange with some observations on the plastids of — 

citrus. M. B. Matuack...... Mr Diva ous Rha Cae ieee .. 4387 
Entomology.—A new ant from Porto Rico. Wm. M. MANN............... aes 440 

PROCEEDINGS 

The AGADEMY.,..2... 2... 0. . 5 ack pe ee Lig aia oe es 441 
The Srolorical Society. ... ict. Supe ee hes ok lee ee 445 
Sctuntimc Nores anD NEWS. 6202 S40) eee a ee 451 


This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. 


‘ia 
“ 
S 


NOVEMBER 4, 1931 No. 18 


P re! . : =, , 
; a f ye 
i | uf Ba 
4 = a 4 frm, aN 
: i ¥ if ge ~~ 4 
2 i» Fag 
Sd, | fees S | = 
One: * i" 
OF THE es 7 ! 


~ a ee 


a 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 21 NoveEeMBER 4, 1931 No. 18 


POPULATION ANALYSIS.—The extinction of families—II.1. ALFRED 
J. Lorka, New York. 


Let Cy be the probability, at the moment of his birth, that a random 
male shall eventually have just N sons. Then, as has been shown by 
H. W. Watson,? and independently by J. F. Steffensen,? the prob- 
ability that the progeny of this male, in direct line of male descent, 
shall comprise just & males in the s-th generation is given by the coef- 
ficient of x* in the s-th iteration‘ f,(x) of f(x), where 


To carry. out the successive iterations of the function f(x), as re- 
quired according to this formula, for any considerable number of 
generations, would be an excessively laborious task in the general 
case in which the coefficients Cy may have any arbitrary values. 
Actually, the work is greatly simplified by the fact that the numerical 
coefficients Ci, C2, . . . .as computed from actual statistics (United 
States, white males 1920), are found to approximate the simple law 
of geometric progression. ‘This is shown in Fig. 1, in which the nu- 
merical values of the Cy are plotted on a logarithmic scale against 
the values of N on an arithmetic scale. It will be seen that for V = 
1,2,3, . . . , the points thus plotted fall approximately on a straight 
line. It is true that for the higher members of the set, notably C, 


1 Received September 23, 1931. For Part Isee this JoURNAL 21: 377-380 1931. 
2 Published in Natural Inheritance by Francis Galton, 1889, p. 242. 
3’ Matematisk Tidskrift 1930, p. 19. 
* The notation f, (x) and its designation as the s-th iteration of f(x) is to be understood 
as follows: 
file) = f@) 
falc) = ffi(z)} 
fale) = fifsa(e)} 
In counting generations, the original ancestor must be reckoned as the zero genera- 
tion, his sons as the first, and so on. 
453 


454 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 18 


and Cy, there is a systematic departure from linearity. But these 
higher coefficients are relatively unimportant, since families comprising 
a large number of sons are rare. Accordingly a straight line was 
fitted by the method of least squares to the logarithms of the values 
of C,, Cy, . . .determined by the process described in Part I (this 
JouRNAL, October 4, 1931, p. 377) with the results shown in Fig. 1 


1.0000 


ee Le CS Coe NG BUS ema eee 

i A ) a N he IN 

a a i ee a ee a 

ee a a 
[ML LL ea 

“lOO es eee ee a 
Ee Po Pa” en ns na nen a 

i i ed i Ce Mo 

‘i et a a i i 
c ee eee 
* oo | | 
—————_————— 
is Seen BEG Pn Re I ee ee Se) 
° i i i 
a ei ie 
gore eae 
—————— 

ey Rat a OR eT a Ew 

i aa eee | 

.0001 om 2 3 4 fe 6 i 8 9 10 


Number of Sons (W) 


Figure 1. Probability P (1, N) that a new-born male shall have N male descendents 
(sons) in the first generation. Based on statistics for white males, U.S., 1920. 


and Table 1 in which the ‘‘smoothed”’ values for Ci, C, . . . Cio are 
those given by the least square fit 
Cy = .4099 x (.5586)” (2) 


It should be noted that C, is not included among the series of coef- 
ficients defined by (2). If it had been included, the set of coefficients 


Nov. 4, 1931 LOTKA: EXTINCTION OF FAMILIES 455 


10 
would in general fail to satisfy the condition Y Cy = 1. Accordingly 
1 


Cy was determined separately, by the relation 
10 
Ce tas (3)5 
1 


alter the “‘smoothed”’ values of Ci, C2 . . . Cio had been deter- 
mined as indicated above. 


TABLE 1. VauuEs oF COEFFICIENTS Cy 


N Crude Smoothed@ 
0 .4981 .4828 
1 .2103 2289 
2 .1270 .1279 
3 .0730 .0714 
4 .0418 .0399 
5 .0241 .0233 
6 .0132 .0125 
ds .0069 .6070 
8 .0035 .0039 
9 .0015 .0022 
10 .0005 .0012 
2 Least squares straight line fit to logarithms of Ci,C2, . . . Cio, 


Cy = .4099 X (.5586)¥ 


The function f(x), using the smoothed values of the coefficients Cy, 
is of the form of a constant term plus a geometric series. It can, ac- 
cordingly be written in finite form 


.40986 [1 — (.558602)"4] (4) 
(1 — .55860z) 

In actually carrying out this iteration, the labor can be greatly 

reduced, with but little loss in accuracy,® if the geometric series is 


summed to infinity, instead of stopping at the term in C1». The equa- 
tion (4) then reduces to 


f(z) = .07294 + 


4828 — .040742 
_ 4828 — .04074x 5 
Hz) Wea o 


5 In equation (3) it does not very greatly influence the result whether we carry the 
summation to Cy or to Cw, the former alternative giving Cy = .4828, the latter Cy = 
4813, while the unsmoothed data give Co = .4981. 

6 The retention of the higher terms implies that we are including a contingent of very 
large families. But the coefficients Cy become so small, i.e., the theoretically very large 
families are so rare, that the error introduced is small. 


456 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 18 


With the function f(z) thus expressed in finite form, the determina- 
tion of successive iterations 1s now a matter of simple arithmetic, the 
results being obtained primarily in finite form, and being then expanded 
in series in order to determine the required coefficient of x*. 

The results thus obtained are shown in Table 2 and in Fig. 2. This 
latter has been drawn as a three-dimensional model and shows on a 
vertical logarithmic scale the probability P(s,N) that the s-th genera- 
tion shall comprise just NV sons, the corresponding values of s and N 
being read on arithmetic scales running respectively from left to right 
and from the back face forward out of the plane of the paper. The 
values of this probability for N = 0 and for successive generations 
fall on a separate curve shown near the top on the rear face of the dia- 


TABLE 2. Tut Propasiuity P (s.V) ppr 1,000 rHat a NEwBorn MALE SHALL HAVE N 
MALE DESCENDANTS IN THE 8-TH GENERATION 


482 80/517 .20)228 . 95/127 .89) 71.44) 39.91) 22.29) 12.45) 6.95} 3.88) 2.17| 1.21 
634. 16/365 .84) 98.29) 72.12) 52.92) 38.83) 28.49} 20.90} 15.33) 11.25) 8.25) 6.05 
707 .65|292 .35) 53.97) 44.19} 36.18) 29.62) 24.25) 19.85} 16.25) 13.30) 10.89) 8.92 
750. 74/249 .26) 33.80) 29.36) 25.50) 22.15) 19.24) 16.71) 14.51] 12.60] 10.94) 9.50 
778 .83/221.17| 22.95) 20.68] 18.63) 16.79) 15.13) 13.63] 12.28] 11.07; 9.97) 8.98 
798 .45)201 .55) 16.48) 15.22) 14.06} 12.99) 12.00) 11.09) 10.24) 9.46) 8.74) 8.07 
812.80)187.20) 12.29} 11.56} 10.87) 10.22) 9.61) 9.04) 8.50) 7.99) 7.51) 7.06 
823 .68/176.32} 9.46) 9.01) 8.59} 8.19| 7.80) 7.43) 7.08} 6.75) 6.43) 6.13 
832.13/167.87; 7.41) 7.13) 6.86, 6.60) 6.35) 6.11) 5.88) 5.66) 5.45) 5.25 
838 .81/161.19) 5.90) 5.73) 5.56) 5.40) 5.24) 5.08} 4.93) 4.78) 4.64) 4.50 


COMO ONO rPEwWNH FE 


— 


gram. The values of the probability P(s,N) for all other values of 
s and WN fall on a family of straight lines which themselves fall on a 
ruled surface, the outstanding feature of the diagram. 

Graphic iteration of the function f(x). It is worth noting that the 
operation of constructing successive iterations of f(z) is very easily 
carried out graphically, as follows: 

In the diagram, Fig. 3, the lowermost curve represents the function 
y = f(x) to be iterated. Draw the line OP at 45 degrees to the co- 
ordinate axes. Take any point Q on the given curve. From Q draw 
a perpendicular QR, and a horizontal QS meeting OP in 8. From 
S draw a perpendicular ST meeting the curve in T. From T draw a 
horizontal TU meeting QR in U. Then U isa point on the (second) 
iteration f {f(x)} = f.(x). Point by point the graph of f.(z) can thus 


Noy. 4, 1931 LOTKA: EXTINCTION OF FAMILIES 457 


be constructed, and from it, by a repetition of the process, the graph 
of f3(z) and so on. Or, in view of the relation 

te \fo(a)} = f.(2) (6) 
the fourth iteration can be obtained directly from the second, the 
eighth from the fourth and so on. 


Generation (.s) 


2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 
1.0000 ee 
a eae See) (eae eal De Peeeeredl 
ess res ee PO 
acne sents eee eae) ere) aa 
a eer remy | 


Plane of zero mele progeny 


rT 
ct 


Probability of N Males in S4 Generation 


Generation (s) 


Figure 2. Probability P (s, N) that a new-born male shall have N male descendents 
in the s-th generation. Based on statistics for white males, U.S., 1920. 


The process is very simple and easily carried out. It must be 
remembered, however, that we require not merely the graphs of these 
iterated functions, but the coefficients of the terms in their expansion 
in power series. Unfortunately, for the determination of these coef- 
ficients with any satisfactory degree of accuracy the graphs are not 
adequate. They do, however, bring out clearly certain points of in- 


458 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 18 


terest. So, for example, it will be seen that the graphs for all the ite- 
rated functions pass through the points corresponding to the roots of 
the equation 


x = f(x) (7) 


* 
fied =Co+ Cx +C,x?+ + C,x!° 


Where Cy = PR) at birth, that 
given male shall have 
Just N sons 


In the example here figured, 


i 40986[1-(55860x)"] 
fits + 07294 + Tr seecox] 


Note : 
The intercept, on the y axis, of the curve y = fs(x) gives the probabrhe 
of extinction of ihetiale line of eteent vane he first S lyenerations 


co) 
° a ig 3 4 5 G 7 8 i) 1.0 


Figure 3. Iterations of y = fi(z)* and illustration of the graphic method of construc- 
tion. 


these roots being common also to the equation 
for all values of s. 

Another point of interest to note is that the successive iterated 
curves ultimately approach a curve consisting of two straight lines 
forming a right angle. 


nov. 4, 1931 COOPER: AUTHORSHIP OF ‘‘PRELIMINARY NOTICE” 459 


Roots of equation (7). In Part 1 of this article the root, inferior to 
unity, of (7) was found to be .8797 on the basis of the original unsmooth 
values of the coefficients Cy. This required solving by the method of 
successive approximations an equation of tenth degree, with terms of 
all degrees from the first to the tenth actually present. 

It is to be noted that when the smoothed values of the coefficients 
Cy are employed, the solution of (7) is greatly simplified. The first 
approximation is found very easily by the quadratic equation 

48280 — .04074x 
| (9) 

1 — .55860x 

8724 (10) 


The further approximations are then very easily computed with re- 
tention of the term in x" in the expression (4) for f(x), since there is 
always only one term of higher than second degree present. ‘There is 
thus found, ultimately, for the required root, 


f= (8715 (11) 


which, as will be seen, does not differ very greatly from the value 
.8797 obtained with use of the unsmoothed coefficients Cy. In fact, 
the errors of observation in the statistics underlying the values of Cy 
are probably greater than the difference between the crude and the 
unsmoothed values of these coefficients, and accordingly nosignificance 
can be attached to the difference by less than one unit in the second 
decimal between the values .880 and .872 obtained as above by the 
use of the crude and of the smoothed coefficients respectively. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Concerning the authorship of the “Preliminary 
notice of the lamellibranch shells of the upper Helderberg, Hamilton 
and Chemung groups, etc., Part 2’! G. A. Coopmr, U. 8. Na- 
tional Museum (Communicated by J. B. REESIDE, JR.). 


During the course of bibliographic studies of the Devonian Pelecypoda 
in connection with a projected bibliography of the Devonian inverte- 
brates under the direction of Dr. E. M. Kindle of the Canadian Geo- 
logical Survey the writer has had to refer to a paper reminiscent of 
the turbulent days at Albany in the Hall régime when the great Pale- 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received 
September 24, 1931. 


460 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 18 


ontology of New York was being conceived. The following remarks 
relate to the Preliminary notice of the lamellibranchiate shells of the 
upper Helderberg, Hamilton and Chemung groups, with others from the 
Waverly sandstones, Part 2, published anonymously in 1869 and 1870. 
Although many writers have accredited the publication to James Hall, 
evidence points strongly towards a joint authorship with R. P. Whit- 
field. This claim of Whitfield to joint authorship with Hall has ap- 
parently been recognized by a few writers only. In the interest of 
bibliographic stability it is the writer’s purpose to settle permanently 
the question of authorship of the preliminary notice, No. 2, dates of 
genera and species described therein, and the status of the two generic 
names, Modioconcha and Nyassa. 

The publication under discussion appeared in two forms, the first 
an 80-page edition distributed in December 1869 and the other an 
enlarged edition of 97 pages, published one month later, January 1870. 
Hall? explains the circumstances surrounding the distribution and com- 
position of the pamphlets: 

In 1869 the writer printed and published ‘Preliminary Notice No. 2, of 
the Fossil Lamellibranchiate Shells of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, 
Portage and Chemung groups,” etc., to the number of eighty pages, issued 
in December of that year. One hundred copies in this form were distributed. 
In January following the printing was resumed, and sixteen additional 
pages were printed. The pamphlet thus augmented, with a supplementary 


page stating the fact that the descriptions of other species were in type, was 
distributed to the public. 


Hall states further that the paper was to have appeared in the 23rd 
Annual Report of the New York State Cabinet of Natural History 
“with a preparatory |sic] note making due acknowledgements for 
sources of aid and information . .? The Prehminang noice: 
No. 2 did not appear in the 23rd Annual Report and by way of ex- 
planation Hall adds, “‘this report (23) [rd Annual Report] was, however, 
not published till 1872. In the meantime the burning of the State 
printing establishment destroyed the material in the hands of the 
printer (leaving some proof-sheets only in the hands of the author).”’ 
In the same preface he gives the reason for the appearance of prelvmi- 
nary notice, No. 2 in advance of No. 1 as follows: “‘... because the 
investigations upon the genera there included in No. 2 were farther 
advanced; while comparatively little had been done in arranging the 


2 James Hatyu. Preliminary notice of the lamellibranchiate shells, etc., Part 1. Ann. 
Rept. N. Y. St. Mus. 35: 215, 216. 1884. 


Nov. 4, 1931 cOoOPER: AUTHORSHIP OF ‘‘PRELIMINARY NOTICH’’ 461 


groups preceding those described.” Referring to the preliminary no- 
tice, No. 2 Hall makes the statement that he ‘‘was very efficiently 
aided by Mr. R. P. Whitfield, then an assistant in the Museum, to 
whom he expresses his obligations.”’ 

After the distribution of the 80-page edition, the pamphlet was 
noticed in the American Journal of Science for March, 1870? in which 
the authorship was accredited to James Hall. The publication of 
the paper was also recorded in the Proceedings of the American As- 
sociation for Advancement of Science* and likewise attributed to Hall. 
The Neues Jahrbuch® in noticing the second edition, accredited the 
paper to James Hall. 

The basis of Hall’s title to sole authorship of the paper appears to 
rest on the presence of a printed slip inside the cover of the 97-page 
edition’ which bears the words ‘““With Compliments of James Hall;”’ 
the presence of the name Hall inserted after two of the generic names’ 
used in the pamphlet for the first time; the use of the first person sin- 
gular in some of the descriptions;’ his many references in later litera- 
ture® to the genera proposed in the preliminary notice, No. 2 as his 
own; and the fact that some bibliographers!® have accredited this 
anonymous paper to Hall on the above superficial evidence. 

In the course of his bibliographic studies the writer came upon the 
late Dr. C. D. Walcott’s copy of the 97-page edition which bears valu- 
able notes dealing with the authorship of the pamphlet. Finding Wal- 
cott’s notes of such great importance the idea suggested itself that 
additional copies owned by other paleontologists might likewise yield 
valuable information. Accordingly requests were sent to several 


8 Page 276. 

* Proc. Amer. Asso. Adv. Sci. 18: 282. 1869. 

> Neues Jahrb. fiir Min., Geol. & Pal. 1871, p. 988. 

® Recently the writer purchased an unused copy of the 97-page edition from the 
University of Chicago which shows clearly the method used by Hall in distributing this 
edition of the paper in question. Inside the cover is pasted a slip bearing the following 
printed words: ‘‘With compliments of James Hall, N. Y. State Museum Natural History, 
Albany, N. Y., U. 8. A.” This was a common method of distribution of New York 
State Museum publications. 

The writer does not know if such a slip appeared with the 80-page edition since the 
copies seen were without covers. James D. Dana’s copy bore ‘‘With the respects of 
James Hall” in Hall’s writing. These ‘‘compliments’’ and ‘‘respects’’ of James Hall do 
not necessarily imply authorship by Hall, as was evidently assumed by the American 
Journal of Science for March, 1870. ) 

7 Nyassa, p. 28; Pholadella, p. 63. 

§ See under Modioconcha, p. 27; also pages 34, 44, and 62. 

* Pal.N.Y.V, Lam. 1 & II, 1884 & 1885, resp. 

108. A. Miuuter. North American Geology and Paleontology, II, 1889; ScupDER. 
Nomenclator zoologicus, U.S. Nat. Muss. Bull.19. 1882. 


462 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 18 


universities and museums. Dr. Charles Schuchert of Yale University 
loaned his personal copy of the 97-page edition and James Dwight 
Dana’s copy of the 80-page edition, both of which carried valuable 
notes. Through Dr. R. Ruedemann the New York State Museum 
loaned Dr. John M. Clarke’s copy of the 97-page edition. The writer 
extends his thanks to Drs. Schuchert and Ruedemann and the New 
York State Museum for their kindness. 

Whitfield’s first printed claims known to the writer appear in the 
Geology of Wisconsin, Part III, Paleontology, 1882, pp. 335-337, and 
the Annals of the New York Academy of Science, volume II, no. 8, 
1882, pp. 201, 216, 233, and 244. In these reports Whitfield cites the 
Preliminary notice, No. 2 giving Hall and Whitfield as authors and 
states that the pamphlet was “distributed without author’s name.” 
In his faunal lists Whitfield cites a species!! described in the Preliminary 
notice, No. 2 as “H. & W.” 

Whitfield’s claim was brought to public attention prior to the pub- 
lication of the Geology of Wisconsin, Part III, Paleontology by C. A. 
White” who cites the pamphlet as ‘Anon [Hall and Whitfield]’”’ and 
in addition makes the following remarks: 

This memoir was noticed in the Am. Journ. Sci., vol. xlix, 2d series, p. 276, 
and attributed to James Hall, although the work itself bears the name of no 
author. It does not appear that Prof. Hall has anywhere claimed sole author- 
ship; but, on the contrary, Prof. Whitfield has claimed the authorship to be 
jointly with Prof. Hall and himself. See Ann. Rep. Wisconsin Geol. Surv. 


1878, p. 51, and Paleontology of Wisconsin (now in press), pp. 136, 137, and 
133.0 ee 


White’s reference to Whitfield’s claim in the Annual Report of the 
Wisconsin Geological Survey for 1878 and the Paleontology of Wiscon- 
sin have been checked by the writer. The first reference is evidently 
an error by White since Whitfield’s claim does not occur in this report, 
nor in the reports for 1877 and 1879. In the Geology of Wisconsin, 
Part III, Paleontology, Whitfield’s indications of joint authorship 
with Hall appear on pages 335-337, not the pages cited by White. 
It is possible that Whitfield informed White of his intention to pub- 
lish his claims to joint authorship with Hall, or White may have seen 
the manuscript or proof-sheets of the Annual Report for 1878 above | 
cited but the claim never appeared because of deletion or some other 
reason. Whitfield continued these claims in later publications® and 

1 Geol. Wis. 1: 369. 1883. 

12 Bull. U.S. Geol. & Geog. Surv. Terr. 5 (1): 144. 1879. 


13 Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 5: 523, 545, 559, 561, 604, 614. 1891; 12 (8): 140, 185, 186; 
Geol. Ohio 7: 422, 437, 438, 440, 451, 453,494. 1893. 


Nov. 4, 1931 COOPER: AUTHORSHIP OF ‘‘PRELIMINARY NOTICE”’ 463 


the fact that they were ignored by so many writers is doubtless because 
the case was never thoroughly investigated. 

There are certain points of evidence in the paper which strongly 
substantiate Whitfield’s claim to joint authorship with Hall. There 
is an occasional use of the word ‘‘we,” and the appearance of Whit- 
field’s initials on pages 84, 91, and 93. These Hall evidently failed 
to delete during the apparently hurried proof-reading of that part 
of the paper. To this oversight may be added another of Hall’s which 
appears in the legend to plate 14, figure 7, of the 23rd Annual Report 
of the New York State Cabinet of Natural History. In this legend 
the species, Microdon tenuistriatus, described as a new species in the 
Preliminary notice, No. 2, page 32, is cited under the authorship of 
“H. & W.’’, the initials clearly indicating Hall and Whitfield. In 
support of Whitfield’s claim also is the oral statement of Dr. Edwin 
Kirk of the United States Geological Survey who says that, in conver- 
sations with Whitfield, the former associate of Hall declared that he 
(Whitfield) wrote the Preliminary notice, No. 2 and was to have received 
joint authorship with Hall. 

Still more conclusive than the evidence cited above is that contained 
in a note written by Dr. C. D. Walcott on the first page of his copy 
of the sconnd edition. This copy, presented to Walcott by Hall, 
bears the notation ‘‘With compliments of James Hall’ in Hall’s hand 
writing. Walcott, evidently aware of Whitfield’s claim, asked Hall 
to write his name as author if he claimed sole authorship to the pam- 
phlet, but Hall refused to sign his name (see fig. 1). Hall’s refusal to 
assume sole authorship of the Preliminary notice, No. 2 places him in 
the peculiar position of substantiating Whitfield’s claim. James 
Dwight Dana’s copy of the 80-page edition also bears evidence, for, 
in his own handwriting, Dana attributes the authorship to Hall and 
Whitfield. 

The fact that Hall and Whitfield’s names are associated together 
in other papers prepared at this time shows that an agreement of joint 
authorship with Whitfield was not entirely distasteful to Hall. Three 
of these papers" actually appear in the 23rd Annual Report of the State 


44 Whitfield calls attention to the appearance of his initials in the Preliminary notice, 
No. 2in the Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 12 (8): 140. 1899. 

15 Descriptions of new species of fossils from the Devonian rocks of Iowa, pp. 223-289; 
Notice of three new species of fossil shells from the Devonian of Ohio, pp. 240, 241; Notice of 
two new species of fossil shells from the Potsdam sandstone of New York, pp. 241, 242. The 
last two papers are without an author’s name but are included under article (F) along 
with the first. The legends to plates 8-12 accompanying these articles attribute all of 
the species to Hall and Whitfield. 


464 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 18 


Y, 


A 


A——~_2 of, Ss 


SS ~\S 
ee 
Sie 
PRELIMINARY NOTICE Sod 
OF THE LAMELLIBRANCHIATE SHELLS OF THE UPPER N 
HELDERBERG, HAMILTON AND CHEMUNG GROUPS, 
WITH OTHERS FROM THE WAVERLY 
SANDSTONES. 
[ Preparatory for the Paleontology of New-York.] SG 
Parr 2. 


GENUS MODIOLA (Lamarck). 


the Jvc isl 


MopI0oLA PRECEDENS (nN. s.). 


Sex elongate-ovate, very oblique,,a little more than twice as long 
as wide. Valves moderately ventricose : beaks small, appressed ; 
cardinal line short, less than half the length of the Gui slightly \ 
alate and gompaeved at the extremity; postero- “pen! border 
broadly rounded; anterior end short, narrow and laterally com- 
pressed ; byssal iat slightly sinuate. 

Surrace marked by fine concentric lines, and by fine radiating 
wrinkled striae which diverge along the median line and curve 
toward the opposite margins of the shell. | 


Formation and locality. In a band of conglomerate and sandstone of 
the Chemung group, south of Olean, Alleghany county, N.Y. 


ROL og Boe of 
BOs, Oe Of Ney a7 oe 


MopIoLa METELLA (12. s.). 


Ls 


Suetx elongate-ovate, greatest breadth nearer the anterior end; pos- 
terior and antero-basal margins subparallel : beaks small, laterally - 
compressed. Valves evenly ventricose : cardinal line a little more 
than one-third the length of the shell, slightly arcuate; anterior 
end projecting but little beyond the Beaks, inflated and rounded . 
at the margin; postero-basal extremity hare ply rounded. 

Surrace smooth, or indistinctly marked by concentric lines or undu- 9 
lations of growth. 


ed 


ra he ofl. 


a) 
ag 


r4 


IN 


GS 


This species differs from the last in the absence of radiating strive, and 
aw very materially in the form of the shell, which attains a larger size, so 
‘ far as observed. The general features of this shell are similar to those ' 
of Mytilus (Mytilarca) occidentalis (Wire & WuHitFiEtp) from the * 
sandstones of Burlington (Iowa); but it is more regularly ventricose, Sie 
« and not so frequently marked by concentric undulations, while the hinge 


line is more oblique +o the axis of the shell. These featur es will serve to 
State Cab. Nat. Hist., December, 1869. 1 
x 


Figurel. Photographic copy of page 1 of Dr. C. D. Walcott’s copy of the Preliminary 
notice, No. 2 


nov. 4, 1931 COOPER: AUTHORSHIP OF “PRELIMINARY NOTICE” 465 


Cabinet of Natural History, the publication that was to have con- 
tained the Preliminary notice, No. 2. 

The question of bibliographic stability rather than of justice to 
Whitfield has impelled the writer to revive this claim of Whitfield’s to 
joint authorship in the Preliminary notice, No. 2. Although some 
writers have credited Hall with sole authorship, White, Dana, Walcott, 
and Etheridge considered it a joint publication of Hall and Whitfield. 
The pamphlet as distributed from the New York State Museum was 
an anonymous paper and as such has no standing; its contents could 
be ignored and all of the genera and species contained therein dated 
from 1883 when the Palaeontology of New York, vol. V, part 1, Lamelli- 
branchiata, Plates and Legends appeared. ‘This however, would lead 
to a great deal of confusion. It would seem preferable to affix to the 
anonymous paper the same of the senior author, who was directing 
the researches embraced by the pamphlet, and the name of the Junior 
author who obviously had a large share in its preparation. It is rec- 
ommended therefore, as a move towards stability, that subsequent 
bibliographers recognize the authors of the Preliminary notice, No. 2 
as Hall and Whitfield. This procedure will be followed in the forth- 
coming bibliography of Devonian invertebrates. 

The establishment of authorship is not the sole problem connected 
with the Preliminary notice, No. 2; there are, among other points, 
the questions of dates for genera and species and the status of certain 
genera and species. The question of dates arises from the fact that 
there were two editions of the pamphlet, the second edition containing 
17 pages more than the first. The genera and species in the first, or 
80-page edition, take the date December 1869, and those described on 
pages 81—96 of the second or 97-page edition date from January 1870. 
On page 97 several new species of Schizodus and Lunulacardium, a 
new genus Mytilops, and a new subgenus of Pinna, Palaeopinna, are 
mentioned but are unaccompanied by descriptions; these are therefore 
nomina nuda and have no standing. Thespecies and genera” mentioned 
on this page are properly indicated in Palaeontology of New York, 
volume V, Part 1, Lamellibranchiata (plates and legends), 1883 and must 


16R. Jun. ETHERIDGE. Rec. Austral. Mus. 11 (10): 228. 1917. Cites Modiomorpha 
correctly as Hall and Whitfield, 1869. . 

17 Cardiola ventricosa, nom. nud., in the Preliminary notice, No. 2 is not mentioned in 
Pal. N. Y. 5, pt. 1, Lam. (Plates and legends) 1883, but appears in Pal. N. Y. 5, pt. 1, 
Lam. 2, 1885, p. 417, pl. 69, figs.1,2. In Pal. N. Y. 5, pt. 1, Lam. (Plates and legends), 
1883, pl. 69, figs. 1, 2, the very same figures bear the name Cardiola? elevata. Evidently 
the latter name has priority. 


466 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 18 


date from the publication of that volume. The species Schizodus 
quadrangularis (n. s.), page 96, also must stand as a nomen nudum be- 
cause its description is incomplete. This species is adequately indi- 
cated in the “Plates and legends” 1883. | 

It will be of interest to mention several miscellaneous points, as 
follows: a). Although the name Cimitaria is used in the Preliminary 
notice, No. 2 for the first time, it is not designated as a new genus, 
probably due to oversight. b). Whitfield’s claim that Hall’s name was 
inserted after Pholadella!’ without his knowledge can not be recognized. 
““Pholadella (Hall n. g.)”’ must stand as written, for, once it is agreed 
that the paper is a joint product of Hall and Whitfield, it must be 
accepted as published. Pholadella is to be cited, therefore, as “‘Phola- 
della Hall 1869, in Hall and Whitfield 1869.’ c). Under the heading 
“Genus Schizodus King,’ the synonyms of the genus are given, and 
are followed by the name ‘‘Curtonotus’’ in small capitals. It is not 
clear if Curtonotus, a Schizodus-like genus created by Salter, is to be 
regarded as a subgenus of Schizodus because it appears in no other place 
and furthermore all the species are listed as Schizodus. d). The famil- 
iar names Palaeoneilo and Palaeanatina are spelled in this paper 
‘“Palaeaneilo” and “Palanatina,”’ probably an example of inadequate 
proofreading, of which there are many more obvious ones throughout 
the pamphlet. The current spelling is correct and will be continued. 

The case of Modioconcha versus Nyassa is interesting because the 
two genera rest on the same genotype. Modioconcha has never been 
favored by use but Nyassa on the other hand, has been in general use 
since it was first proposed. On page 27 of the Preliminary notice, 
No. 2 remarks on several genera are concluded with a paragraph in 
which the subgeneric name Modioconcha is proposed for a pelecypod 
thought by the ‘‘authors” to have a close relationship to Modvolopsis. 
The type of the proposed subgenus is given as Nyassa arguta. Follow- 
ing the characterization of the new subgenus Modtzoconcha, is the 
heading ‘‘Genus Modiolopsis’”’ with the subheading ‘“‘Subgenus Nyassa 
(Hall).” These headings are followed by descriptions of four species 
of Nyassa, the first species being NV. arguta. Although this is the first 
use of the word Nyassa, except for its mention as the genotype of 
Modvoconcha referred to above, there is no description of the subgenus 
Nyassa and no type is designated. However it is clear that the two 
genera are synonyms, Modtoconcha having N. arguta as type, and 
Nyassa having N. arguta as its first species. 


18 Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2 (8): 233. 1882;5: 609. 1891; Geol. Ohio 7: 494. 1893. 


¢ 


Nov. 4, 1931 COOPER: AUTHORSHIP OF ‘‘PRELIMINARY NOTICE”’ 467 


Later, in 1882, Whitfield published the first characterization of the 
genus (subgenus) Nyassa and stated that the generic description had 
been omitted from the Preliminary notice, No. 2.18 Whitfield selected 
N. arguta as the genotype. Since Modioconcha and Nyassa are to be 
regarded as having been proposed simultaneously the life of either 
depends on the first reviser who has the privilege of selecting one of 
these two genera.?° Whitfield, as first reviser, selected Nyassa and 
named JN. arguta as the type of the genus, and ignored the obscure 
Modioconcha. Further the writer holds that it is desirable to retain 
Nyassa as a genus in preference to Modioconcha because the latter has 
been totally ignored. Scudder” does not list Modioconcha, and Hall 
in the final copies of the Paleontology of New York, volume V, Lamelli- 
branchiata, recognizes the name Nyassa only. The single mention of 
Modioconcha known to the writer in the literature subsequent to 1870 
is by Beushausen” who lists the name in his synonymy of Nyassa but 
fails to use it. On this basis then Modioconcha Hall and Whitfield 
becomes a synonym of Nyassa Hall and Whitfield 1869. In the Pre- 
luminary notice, No. 2 the name “‘(Hall)’’ is inserted after Nyassa on page 
28 but is not followed by the usual ‘‘n. g.’”. For this reason it is 
suggested that Whitfield’s name accompany Hall’s as author of the 
genus. 


19 Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2 (8): 216, 244;5: 558, 1891; Geol. OhioT: 451. 

20 See Article 28, International rules of zoological nomenclature, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash- 
ington 39: 82. 

21 Scudder. Nomanclator zoologicus. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 19: 1882. 

22 Abhandl. konigl. preuss. geol. Landesanst., n. f., Heft 17, p. 29, 1895. 


468 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 18 


ZOOLOGY .—On the status of the nemic genera Aphelenchus Bastain, 
Pathoaphelenchus Cobb, Paraphelenchus Muicoletzky, Parasita- 
phelenchus Fuchs, Isonchus Cobb and Seinura Fuchs.! G. STEINER, 
Bureau of Plant Industry. 


About a year ago, while examining diseased gladiolus corms from 
New Egypt, New Jersey, and again in looking over some diseased Irish 
potatoes from South Africa, nemas were found closely resembling that 
described by Cobb in 1913 as [sonchus radicicolus. In the gladiolus 
corms a single such male was seen, together with numerous females, 
while many males were found in the potatoes. These males were 
specifically identical with the associated females,—which were, beyond 
doubt, Aphelenchus avenae. A detailed study supports this view in 
every way. The male of Aphelenchus avenae is thus identified as 
Isonchus of Cobb. In 1927 Goodey called attention to the close re- 
semblance of the head end of [sonchus radicicolus to that of the female 
Aphelenchus avenae. The proposal by Cobb of a new genus mainly 
on the basis of the male characters is good evidence that the male of 
A. avenae is utterly different from the males hitherto assigned to 
Aphelenchus. This difference is so great that the two types cannot 
reasonably be placed in a single genus. Seemingly, it would be most 
logical to retain Isonchus as the generic name for what has been called 
Aphelenchus avenae. Unfortunately the rules of nomenclature pre- 
vent this. According to Stiles and Hassal (1905), Bastian through 
correspondence made avenae the type of Aphelenchus. Nevertheless 
the portion of the genus which is thought of by every nematologist 
when the generic name is used is that which includes A. parietinus, A. 
fragariae, A. olesistus, A. ritzema-bosi, etc., all quite different from 
avenae. The usual generic diagnosis was chiefly shaped after these 
species, since males were known for these species only. ‘The absence 
of a bursa in the male, a character which is general in all these forms, 
was always considered one of the main generic features, especially in 
contrast with Tylenchus. Even Bastian himself does this by de- 
fault. However, the generic name Aphelenchus Bastian, accord- 
ing to the rules of nomenclature, must be connected permanently 
with A. avenae, because this form was selected by Bastian as the type 
of the genus. This makes the reclassification of the former genus 
more complex. It was an unfortunate choice to designate this species, 
of which the male was unknown at the time, as the type, when another 


1 Received September 30, 1931. 


nov. 4, 1931 STEINER: ON STATUS OF NEMIC GENERA 469 


species like A. partetinus, with both sexes known, could have been 
designated. This is even more deplorable because, as before men- 
tioned, one of the main generic characters—the absence of a bursa— 
was based on the male of A. parietinus. 

It is evident that the whole classification of what has been called 
Aphelenchus must be revised, even though the genus has included a 
number of economically important parasitic species recorded in an 
extensive literature, so that the renaming must create confusion. 

Under the rules of zoological nomenclature, Aphelenchus avenae 
Bastian remains as the type species of the genus Aphelenchus. Aphel- 
enchus must be synonymized with the genus Isonchus Cobb. 

Thus the forms placed in the genera Aphelenchus, Isonchus and 
Paraphelenchus now fall as follows: 

1. Aphelenchus, with four or, more probably, two species, namely: 
A. avenae, A. agricola de Man (if it is different from avenae), A. radicico- 
lus-[sonchus radicicolus (if it is different from avenae) and A. Cylindri- 
caudatus Cobb (Steiner 1926). 

Diagnosis: Aphelenchus, nemas resembling Tylenchus but differing in 
the following characters; spear without basal swellings (knots); posterior 
portion of oesophagus not distinctly set off from the intestine, which apparently 
begins just- behind the middle bulb; the latter well developed, oval, with 
valvulae; dorsal salivary gland emptying in front of, subventral behind, these 
valvulae. Female with a more or less reduced posterior branch of the uterus; 
male with a gubernaculum and a well developed bursa with several bursal 


ribs. 
Type: A. avenae Bastian 1865. 


2. Pathoaphelenchus (Cobb), (Syn. Parasitaphelenchus Fuchs) pro- 
posed in 1928 as asubgenus of the formerAphelenchus, to include forms 
like A. parietinus ete., which do not have a bluntly rounded, but conical 
or even filiform tail end. It is proposed to give Pathoaphelenchus 
generic standing and to include in it the forms Cobb placed in his sub- 
genus. 


Diagnosis: Pathoaphelenchus, nemas similar to Aphelenchus but the males 
without bursa and without a gubernaculum. Spear mostly with basal swell- 
ings (knots) or furcated at its proximal end. Type: P. parzetinus Bastian. 
The subgeneric division proposed by Cobb would be retained: 

subgen. Pathoaphelenchus with the spear with basal swellings (knots), 
not furcated posteriorly. Type: P. parietinus (Bastian) 1865. 

subgen. Schistonchus with the spear fureated posteriorly. Type: S. 
caprifict (Gasparrini) Cobb 1928. 

subgen. Seinura (Fuchs) emend with the spear as in subgenus Patho- 
aphelenchus but without basal swellings or knots. Type: S. malz 
Fuchs. 


470 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 18 


This last subgenus was proposed as a new genus by Gilbert Fuchs 
in 1931, and characterized as resembling Aphelenchus but having a 
spear without basal swellings or knots and an elongated tail. Con- 
sidering that an earlier described Pathoaphelenchus (P.demani) has also 
an elongated tail, the only remaining differentiating character would 
be the absence of swellings or knots on the spear. This, however, we 
cannot consider as of generic importance, and propose Seinura as of 
subgeneric standing. 

Recently Fuchs created the genus Parasitaphelenchus to include a 
large number of new species. Unfortunately he gives no diagnosis. 
The genus as he describes it cannot be distinguished from Patho- 
aphelenchus. It is therefore thought best to consider it synonymous 
with the latter. Possibly later some of the forms he referred to it 
may be placed to advantage in one or several new genera, their generic 
diagnosis being formulated anew. But some at least of the new species 
of Fuchs would have to remain with Pathoaphelenchus, its generic 
diagnosis applying fully to them. This matter is more fully discussed 
in a recent paper (Steiner, in press). 

3. Paraphelenchus Micoletzky. ‘This is a good genus. Its stand- 
ing and the forms belonging to it are discussed in another paper (Steiner 
and Cassidy, in press). 

Diagnosis: Paraphelenchus, nemas resembling Aphelenchus but with a 
posterior (post-bulbar) oesophageal portion, which is distinctly set off from 
the intestine; males with a gubernaculum but without a bursa, their tail 
being short, more or less obtuse and having a number of irregularly arranged 
papillae. 

Type: P. pseudoparietinus Micoletzky 1922. 


APHELENCHUS AVENAE Bastian 
Syn.: Aphelenchus agricola de Man, 1885 


This species has been discussed by a number of authors. Goodey 
(1927, 1928 and 1929) added perhaps most to our knowledge, and first 
called attention to its close resemblance to Jsonchus radicicolus, which 
may prove to be synonymous. As far as can be seen at present, they 
differ in no way. The male of A. cylindricaudatus (syn. Tylenchus 
cylindricaudatus) can hardly also be distinguished from it; here, how- 
ever, the female exhibits some differentiating characters. 

It has long been an open question as to the synonymy of A. avenae 
and A. agricola. The only marked difference between the two species 
is the striation of the lateral fields described for A. agricola but not 
mentioned by Bastian for A. avenae. However, Bastian may well 


nov. 4, 1931 STEINER: ON STATUS OF NEMIC GENERA 471 


have overlooked them. In fixed material it is often difficult, even 
impossible, to observe them, although they are rather plain in all 
living specimens. This is true too for the caudal papillae as described 
by de Man for the female tail of A. agricola. Sometimes they are 
very faint or are not seen at all. 

A. avenae seems to be a very polyphagous species since it has been 
discovered on a great variety of plants. From January to July 
1931 it was seen by the writer as follows: 


In Irish potatoes from South Africa (2) 
6c 6c c?¢ cc England (4) 


GE, + 166 73 ‘“ Canada (7) 
bag hae ‘6 ‘c Argentina 
éc a9 cc a9 Denmark 
cé cs ce cc Finland 
a4 ce ce ia§ Egypt 
“sweet ‘“ ‘“f New Jersey 
“Carrot 4, Brazil 
te dees ‘ South Africa 
a9 i 6c Germany 
‘* onion ‘* Greece 
OC abe 66 Egypt 
(73 ce 6c Italy 
a4 igs ag Germany 
‘* narcissus ‘Virginia (2) 
és f ‘ New Jersey (2) 
ty 4 ‘* New York 
ss © ‘‘ Mississippi 
i ‘* Illinois 
f ‘‘ Holland (2) 
‘* iris ‘* Holland (2) 
‘* anemone “New York.) 
‘* cactus ‘* Germany 
‘‘ Caryopteris sp. ‘‘ France 
‘* strawberry ‘‘ Massachusetts 
66 66 7 Oregon 
‘* peony  ObiG 
‘“* cotton 
seedlings ‘‘ South Carolina 


Not only is the variety of plants with which it is found associated 
apparently large, but its geographical distribution also seems to be 
worldwide. Little is known as to its closer relationship to the various 
plants. It is perhaps one of the species with facultative parasitism, 
that is, it can live as a true parasite but does not necessarily have to 
do so, being able also to support itself in a saprophytic mode. Its 
parasitism may be ecto- or endo-parasitism. In gladiolus the nemas 
were found in brownish spots all through the corms and were located 


472 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 18 


by cutting the latter into pieces. There is a certain phaenotypical 
difference in the specimens from the various hosts, those from potato 
tubers, carrots and similar rich food being relatively larger and fatter. 

Few facts are to be added to the morphology of the female. The 
number of the striae on the lateral fields, if counted in the middle 
region, is most often 12. The number, however, diminishes toward 
both ends of the body. These striae are crenate according to the cuti- 
cular annulation. The latter, however, stops at these lateral fields. 
In the male these structures are the same. A careful comparison 
of the sexes reveals this to be true for all morphological characters 
common to both. Figure 1, A represents the anterior end of a male. 
If compared with Figure 3 and the description given by Goodey (1929) 
and others, complete similarity is seen. Special stress is laid upon the 
fact that the oesophageal glands have not only the same arrangement 
but also the same order of outlets in the oesophageal bulb. 

Most striking is the male copulatory apparatus. It somewhat links 
conditions as seen in Rhabditis with those of Tylenchus. The spicula 
resemble somewhat those of Rhabditis in that they have ventrally a — 
semicircular protuberance. The proximal end is slightly capitate. 
In aside view (fig. 1,G) the gubernaculum appears to be almost lineate 
and of about half the length of the spiculum. Seen ventrally (fig. 1,F) 
however it appears to be a broad but flat piece. Most interesting 
is the bursa, the presence of which so widely separates this form from 
all those of the genus Aphelenchus as hitherto conceived. From the 
Tylenchus bursa it differs by the multiple bursal ribs, which, if this 
is, aS it seems, a generic character, brings the genus Aphelenchus near 
to Rhabditis. One rib is located slightly in front of the anus, the three 
others on the second half of the tail, being separated from each other 
by about equal distances. ‘The bursa encloses the tail end. The 
presence of some bursal muscles anterior to the bursa itself is probable. 
A retractor spiculi was seen in the usual position. ‘The testis is re- 
flexed (fig.1,D). In the material from South Africa which contained 
a larger number of male specimens, a female with a definite copulatory 
mark on its vulva was seen (fig. 1,C). Such marks are not infrequently 
seen in the bisexual Rhabditis species. In the present case it shows 
that copulation may take place. It is, however, assumed by most 
writers that Aphelenchus avenae is a syngonic species. What signifi- 
cance then has the sporadic appearance of males? They seem to be 
fully functional, at least to judge from the above mentioned copulation 
mark. There are no explanations available based on experimental 


Nov. 4, 1931 STEINER: ON STATUS OF NEMIC GENERA 473 


or other evidence. However, reference may be made to similar con- 
ditions in some of the Rhabditis species. Under certain circumstances, 
probably of external character, males appear in some of these normally 


ee =| 


ee 


ey 
ee 


& 
_—F 
Ne ne er eas 
eo 
a % —. 3 
So 
= 


Pay tt rt 
rst 
7 


2222ye 

fai KO SRS 
EE SCY AES i) i 
~ ACES es S Es #2 22, Bes 
4 Si - 


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eyed ) “Fe 


Fig. 1.—Aphelenchus avenae Bastian. A. Head end of male. ez p, excretory pore; 
oe gls, oesophageal glands; oe gl op, openings of oesophageal glands; about X 533. B. 
Structure of lateral field. C,. Side view of vulva and vagina; cem, cement left from 
copulation, con msc vag, circular constrictor vaginae; dil msc vlv, dilatator muscle of 
vulva. C,. Front view of vulva with obliquely placed dilatator muscles. D. End por- 
tion of testis reflexed. E,H,,3.. Various types of tailends. F. Ventral view of male tail 
end; gub, gubernaculum; sp, spiculum; rbs brs 1-4, bursal ribs; about X 533. G. Side 
view of male tail end; legend same as in Fig. F; about X 533. H. Side view of vulva to 
show the sudden contraction behind the vulva. 


syngonic species, exceptionally even in considerable number. The 
mechanism of their appearance, however, is unknown. ‘The resem- 


474 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 18 


blance of A. avenae to Rhabditis along this more physiological lineis 
rather significant. 

Finally attention should be called to the fact that in the present 
species the tail of the female exhibits a certain variation; forms with 
the typical cylindrical tail (fig. 1, E;) were seen, besides forms with a 
tail like that in Figure 1,E; and the one in Figure 1, Es,,. A certain 
variation exists also in regard to the profile line of the vulva, which 
usually represents conditions as drawn in Figure 1,H where a sudden 
constriction occurs just back of the vulva. Figure 1,C, represents an 
exception to this, the constriction being absent. The latter figure and 
Figure 1, C: give the arrangement of the dilatatores vulvae, four in 
number and attached diagonally at each corner of the vulva. There 
seems to exist also a circular constrictor vaginae (fig. 1, C;). 


Measurements: 
Male from gladiolus corm 
2 

oli Maden st ey aan tag 1h 2) acc. 
1.9 2.9 3.1 3) ob) 2.4 

Specimens from parsnips 
canna Mere UNAM RAM G22 ey. 
De. 2.9 3.2 3.8 DADs 
i. 10.6 125 80 97 

.82 mm. 


CO CC CC CC CS TT er 


5 2.5 2.6 3.0 2.2 


THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS APHELENCHUS AS KNOWN AT PRESENT 


As stated above, Isonchus radicicolus Cobb 1913 is undoubtedly a 
member of the genus Aphelenchus as here conceived; the same is the 
case for T'ylenchus cylindricaudatus Cobb (Steiner 1926). Both species 
are extremely similar to A. avenae, especially in the male and a re- 
vision of their characters seems to be necessary for a final ascertain- 
ment of their taxonomic position. On the basis of data available at 
present, the following diagnoses may be given: 


A. avenae Bastian, type species (Syn. A. agricola) 

Diagnosis: Aphelenchus with the characters of the genus; lateral fields 
in the middle region of the body with about twelve longitudinal striae, crenate 
according to the annulation. Four bursal ribs; female tail cylindroid or 
obtuse conical. 


A. cylindricaudatus (Cobb) (Steiner 1926) 


Diagnosis: Similar to A. avenae but lateral wings well developed, crenation 
irregular, not conforming with the cuticular annulation. (Lateral fields 
without longitudinal striae?). Female tail somewhat finger-shaped, its base 


Nov. 4, 1931 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 475 


conical, next portion cylindrical, end portion somewhat swollen and bluntly 
rounded. 


1A. radicicolus (Cobb 1913) 


Diagnosis: Characters of A. avenae but a single lateral wing (apparently 
without lateral fields and longitudinal striae!). Male bursa with 5 ribs. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Coss, N. A. New nematode genera found inhabiting fresh water and non-brackish soils. 
This JouRNAL 3: 432-444. Pl. 1. 1913. 

Coss, N.A. Proceedings Helminthological Society of Washington. Journ. Parasitology. 
14: 54-72. 1928. 

Fucus, GILBERT. Neue an Borken- und Riisselkéfer gebundene Nematoden, halbpara- 
sitische und Wohnungseimmieter. Zool. Jahrb. Syst. 59. 505-646. figs. 1-177. 
1930. 

Fucus, GILBERT. Seinuragen.nov. Zool. Anz. 226-228. Abb.1-5. 1931. 

Gorrart, H. Die Aphelenchen der Kulturpflanzen. Julius Springer, Berlin. 1-104. 
Textfig. 142. Pl. 1. figs. 1-8. 1930. 

GoopeEy, T.- On the nematode genus Aphelenchus. Journ. Helminthology. 5. 203-220. 
figs. 1-10. 1927. 

GoopEy, T. The species of the genus Aphelenchus. ibidem 6. 121-160. figs. 1-23. 
1928. 

Goopgy, T. On some details of comparative anatomy in Aphelenchus, Tylenchus and 
Heterodera. ibidem 7. 223-230. figs.14. 1929. 

Man, J.G.pE. Die frei in der reinen Erde und im stissen Wasser lebenden Nematoden der 
niederldndischen Fauna. Leiden: E.J. Brill. 1884. 

Micouetzky, H. Die freilebenden Erd-Nematoden. Arch. Naturgesch. 87. Jahrg. 
Abt. A. Heft. 8a. 9. 1922. 

STEINER, G. Parasitic nemas on peanuts in South Africa. Centralbl. f. Bakt. Par. 
Infekt. 66. 351-365. PlatesI-IV. 1926. 

STEINER,G. Onsomenemic parasites and associates of the Mountain Pine Beetle (Dend- 
roctonus monticolae Hopkins). Journ. Agric. Research (in press). 

STEINER, G. AND GERTRUDE Cassipy. A study of nemas infesting the roots of coffee 
trees in Java, Guatemala and the Hawaiian Islands (in preparation). 

STILES, CHas. WARDELL, AND HaSSALL, ALBERT. The determination of generic types, and 
a list of roundworm genera, with their original and type species. Bull. 79, Bureau of 
Animal Industry, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington. 1-150. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


F. M. Sours of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, who was one of 
the scientific staff on board the Nautilus, arrived in Washington, D. C., 
October 14, bringing with him the magnetic and depth data obtained. De- 
spite the necessary curtailment in the cruise because of lateness of the season 
valuable data were secured in physical and chemical oceanography, terrestrial 
magnetism, gravity, and marine biology. 


ANDREW THOMSON, formerly director of the Apia Samoa Observatory, who 
recently returned from eight months’ meteorological studies in Europe is 
temporarily engaged at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism in the 


476 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 18 


reduction and discussion of the 171 pilot-balloon series over the Pacific Ocean 
obtained on the Carnegie. 


Dr. L. E. Loveripce of the University of California reported September 
28 at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism to assist in the high-voltage 
laboratory. 


The United States Geographic Board on October 7, 1931, adopted a resolu- 
tion naming a crater in Coconino County, Ariz., ‘‘Merrill Crater,” in honor 
of the late Dr. Grorcr P. Murriti, who was the first scientist to investigate 
and. describe Meteor Mountain, which is in the vicinity of the newly named 
Merrill Crater. 


The staff of the Division of Mollusks of the National Museum has been 
increased by the appointment of Mr. Horace G. Ricuarps of the University 
of Pennsylvania, to the position of Aid. 


Obituary 


JamMEs WILLIAMS GIDLEY, Assistant Curator of Mammalian Fossils in the 
U.S. National Museum and a member of the Acapremy, died September 25, 
1931, at Washington after a protracted illness. Dr. Gidley was born in 
Winneshiek County, lowa, on January 7, 1866. He obtained his professional 
training at Princeton University, where he took a master’s degree, and at 
George Washington University, where he received the doctorate. He was 
attached for some years to the American Museum of Natural History, trans- 
ferring in 1905 to the National Museum and remaining with that institution 
until his death. Dr. Gidley chose the study of the fossil mammals as his 
special field and attained distinction in it. His earlier work concerned the 
Eocene mamals, but in later years he dealt chiefly with the later faunas. 
His most recent work was with the late extinct fauna of Florida, which is 
associated with human remains, and with an older fauna of the late Pliocene 
of Idaho. 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 21 NoveMBeER 19, 1931 No. 19 


BOTANY.—Four new species of Myrsinaceae from China.! E. H. 
Waker, National Museum. (Communicated by Wituram R. 
Maxon). 


The following four new species have been recognized during the 
examination of alarge number of specimens of Myrsinaceae from eastern 
Asia in various American Herbaria. They are here described prepara- 
tory to a revision of the Chinese, Japanese, and Formosan members 
of this family. 


Ardisia scalarinervis Walker, sp. nov. 


Repent undershrub, about 40 cm. high, the branches ascending, densely 
fuscous-tomentose; leaves clustered at ends of branches, the petiole about 
4 em. long, fuscous or ferruginous-tomentose or villose, the blade 20 to 30 
em. long, 7 to 8 cm. wide, obovate or oblanceolate, tapering toward the 
narrowly rounded base, rather broadly acute or sub-acuminate at apex, closely 
erose-dentate (the teeth apiculate), prominently elevated-punctate near 
margin and apex on both sides, glabrous and dark green above, sparingly and 
minutely puberulent and fuscous beneath; midrib prominent beneath, densely 
shaggy with long ferruginous villose crisped hairs, the lateral nerves forming 
a right or obtuse angle with the midrib; inflorescence 2 to 3 cm. long, a sub- 
terminal or axillary, pubescent cluster of several peduncled umbels each about 
7-flowered, the peduncles short, the pedicels slender, about 1.5 cm. long; 
flowers 4 mm. long; sepals shortly united at base, triangular-ovate, 1.5mm. long, 
ferruginous-puberulent, minutely ciliate, not punctate; petals ovate or 
oblong-ovate, acute glabrous, black punctate at apex; stamens somewhat 
shorter than petals, the filaments very short and broad, the anthers large, 
sagittate, acute or submucronate; pistil with globose, hairy ovary, the style 
very slender, about as long as petals, the stigma punctiform; fruit a globose 
berry with horny endocarp, 5 to 7 mm. in diameter, reddish, minutely puberu- 
lent or glabrous, not punctate, one-seeded. 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received 
September 28, 1931. 


ate 


477 


nov 19°" 


Fig. 1. Ardisia scalarinervis Walker, sp. nov.—a. branchlet with leaf and inflores- 
cence, 2/5 nat. size; b. pistil, x 5; c, petals and stamens, x 5; d. fruit, x 5. Fig. 2. 
Maesa salicifolia Walker, sp. nov.—a: branchlet, 2/5 nat. size; b. flower with corolla 
removed, x 5; c. corolla opened, x 5. Fig. 3. Maesa macilenta Walker, sp. nov.—a. 
branchlet, 2/5 nat. size; b. flower, x5. Fig.4. Rapanea kwangsiensis Walker, sp. nov. 
—branchlet with mature fruit and leaf, 2/5 nat. size. ue 


478 


Noy. 19,1931 WALKER: NEW SPECIES OF MYRSINACEAE 479 


Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 458,790, collected at Szemao, 
Yunnan, China, by A. Henry (no. 12,021). 


This species, known only from the type, is very distinct in its oblanceolate 
or obovate leaves with densely shaggy midrib and in the ladderlike arrange- 
ment of the lateral nerves, which are divergent at a right angle from the 


midrib. 
Rapanea kwangsiensis Walker, sp. nov. 


Small tree or shrub, 6 meters high, the branchlets thick; leaves petiolate 
(1 to 2 em.), the blade coriaceous, 11 to 14 em. long, 4 to 5 em. wide, obovate, 
gradually tapering to an acute base, broadly acute to obtuse or almost rounded 
at apex, entire, dark green above, paler beneath, glabrous, not punctate, 
except obscurely so beneath at margin; inflorescence few-flowered, developing 
1 to 3 fruits, umbellate on short, densely scaly spurs or knobs, axillary, among 
the leaves or above the rather prominent leaf scars on older portions of the 
branch, the scales obtuse, entire, sometimes fringed; flowers 5 to 6-merous 
on slender pedicels; sepals 2 mm. long, united one-third to one-half their 
length, ovate, acute, entire, sometimes finely papillose on margin, otherwise 
glabrous, not distinctly punctate; petals united one-third their length, about 
4 mm. long, narrowly oblong-lanceolate, rounded or acute at apex, punctate 
on back, papillose on margin and within; stamens with short filaments at- 
tached at or just above the throat of corolla tube, the anthers in pistillate 
flowers shorter than petals, sagittate, apiculate; pistil with ovoid ovary, the 
style very short, the stigma about as long as or slightly longer than the petals, 
flattened-ligulate, sometimes cleft at apex; fruit globular, 4 to 5 mm. in diam- 
eter, purplish, longitudinally lined with elongate, glandular punctations, 
the pedicels slender, 5 to 8 mm. long. 

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,273,486, collected at ‘‘Lan- 
low, E. Lin Yen,’’ Kwangsi, China, 1,500 meters altitude, August 2, 1928, 
by R. C. Ching (no. 6,657). 


This species, known only from the type, may be easily distinguished from 
other Chinese species of the genus by its thicker stems, its clearly obovate 
large leaves having a gradually tapering base, and its fruits with longer pedi- 
cels. The type specimen, though in fruit, bore a few dried pistillate flowers 
from which the above flower description was drawn. It was collected on 
the expedition sent into Kwangsi in 1928 by the Metropolitan Museum of 
Natural History, Nanking, China. 


Maesa macilenta Walker, sp. nov. 


Shrub, 1.5 to 2 meters high, the branchlets slender, glabrous or minutely 
puberulent; leaves short-petiolate (5 mm.), the blade thin-membranous, 10 
to 20 cm. long, 3.5 to 5 em. wide, ovate to elliptic-lanceolate, acute or rounded 
at base, long-acuminate at apex, subentire or minutely sinuate-dentate, dull 
green on both sides, glabrous, glandular-striate, the lateral nerves 7 or 8 pairs; 
inflorescence 1 to 2.5 cm. long, racemose or sparingly branched-paniculate, 
very minutely puberulent, the bracts subulate, nearly equaling the short 
pedicels; flowers 2 mm. long, the bracteoles ovate to oblong; sepals shortly 
united at base, ovate, obtuse, entire, sometimes very minutely ciliate, not 


480 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 19 


conspicuously glandular; corolla tubular-campanulate, the tube twice as long 
as the sepals, 2 to 3 times the length of the ovate, rounded, irregularly margined 
lobes, longitudinally lined; staminate flowers unknown; stamens in pistillate 
flowers minute, included, the anthers ovate; pistil shorter than the corolla 
tube, the free part of the semi-inferior ovary conical, the style slender, less 
than 1 mm. long, the stigma obscurely lobed; fruit unknown. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 458,604, collected at Szemao, 
Yunnan, China, by A. Henry (no. 11,704A). An additional specimen is 
Henry 11,704, in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden. 


This species is related to Maesa japonica (Thunb.) Moritz in its charac- 
teristic relatively long corolla tube. However, it may be distinguished from 
that species by its thin, membranous leaves, its small inflorescence and flowers, 
and its ovate bracteoles, which are not broad and clasping. From the fol- 
lowing new member of this group with long corolla tubes it is distinguished 
by its ovate or elliptic-lanceolate (not narrowly lanceolate) leaves, these thin 
and membranous, not coriaceous and rugose, and by its ovate bracteoles. 


Maesa salicifolia Walker, sp. nov. 


Erect shrub, 2 meters high, glabrous throughout, the branchlets rather 
slender, grayish-brown; leaves with channeled petiole (5 to 8 mm.), the blade 
coriaceous, 10 to 18 cm. long, 1.5 to 2 cm. wide, narrowly oblong-lanceolate, 
obtuse at base, long-acute or acuminate at apex, strongly revolute, entire, 
not punctate, rugose, the midrib and the 5 to 7 pairs of lateral, curved, as- 
cending nerves appearing deeply impressed above, correspondingly ridged 
beneath, the veinlets inconspicuous; inflorescence axillary, solitary or 2 or 
3 together, 1.5 to 2 em. long, racemose or paniculate, the few branches near 
the base; flowers 3 to 4 mm. long, slightly longer than the pedicels, the floral 
parts mostly longitudinally glandular-striate, the bracteoles broadly ovate, 
obtuse, sometimes broadly so; sepals about 1 mm. long, imbricate, shortly 
united, below, broadly ovate to suborbicular, broadly obtuse or rounded, the 
margin thinner; corolla tubular or tubular-campanulate, the tube 3 to 4 mm. 
long, about 3 times the length of the sepals, the lobes short-ovate, rounded, 
scarcely spreading; stamens in staminate flowers included, attached at about 
the middle or above the middle of the corolla tube, 1 mm. long, anthers ob- 
long-ovate, rounded at apex, about equaling the slender filaments; pistil in 
pistillate flowers with free part of semi-inferior ovary conical, the style slender, 
scarcely reaching height of anthers, the stigma slightly dilated; or obscurely 
lobed; fruit globose, 4mm. in diameter, reddish longitudinally striate-punctate 
wrinkled, the persistent sepals approximate about the more or less persistent 
style. 

toe in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, collected on 
Teng Woo Mountain, Kwangtung Province, China, by C. O. Levine and G. 
W. Groff, Noy. 18, 1916 (Canton Christian College no. 45). Additional speci- 
mens are: C.C.C. 13,242 and H. T. Ho 60,026, both from the type locality, 
Teng Woo Mountain. 


In its long corolla tube this species is related to Maesa japonica, from 
which, however, as well as from the preceding new species, it may be readily 
distinguished by its narrowly lanceolate, entire, rugose leaves. In floral 
characters it is at present indistinguishable from Maesa japonica. 


Noy. 19, 1931 GOLDMAN: A NEW AGOUTI 481 


ZOOLOGY.—A new agoutt from Costa Rica E. A. GoLpMan, 
Biological Survey. 

Among interesting mammals recently obtained by the well known 
field naturalist, Mr. C. F. Underwood, in western Costa Rica, is an 
agouti which seems to represent a hitherto unrecognized geographic 
race. It is here named for the collector who has been making notable 
contributions to knowledge of the fauna of Costa Rica for many years. 


Dasyprocta punctata underwoodi subsp. nov. 
Costa Rican Agouti 


Type. From San Geronimo, Pirris, western Costa Rica. No. 256459, 
@ adult, U. S. National Museum, collected by C. F. Underwood, June 1, 
1931. 

General characters.—An orange buff and yellow subspecies without distinctly 
banded pelage; longer hairs on rump reaching about 95 millimeters, mainly 
dusky below light orange yellow tips about 20 millimeters in length. Similar 
to Dasyprocta punctata punctata and D. p. richmondz, but pelage of upper parts 
in general much less distinctly banded, the longer rump hairs nearly uni- 
formly dusky below light orange yellow tips (narrowly banded to base in 
punctata and richmondz). Very similar in color arrangement to the geograph- 
ically more distant form D. p. dariensis of eastern Panama, but upper parts 
more extensively orange buff or orange yellowish; and skull lighter in struc- 
ture. Differing notably from D. p. nuchalis of western Panama in the absence 
of the black nape. 

Color.—Type: Top of head, nape, shoulders, sides of body and outer sur- 
faces of limbs coarsely mixed black and light orange yellow; middle of back 
heavily overlaid with rich orange buff, the under color blackish; long hairs 
of rump blackish basally but tipped with light orange yellow in contrast with 
orange buff of back; under parts in general mixed brownish and pale yellow- 
ish buff, the buff becoming purer along the median line of abdomen and 
inguinal region; fore feet blackish; hind feet with short black and yellowish 
hairs on metatarsus. 

Skull.—Closely resembling those of D. p. punctata and D. p. richmondi 
but vertical portion of maxilla between jugal and antorbital vacuity narrower 
in the type, more encroached upon by jugal; nasals very broad and expanded 
anteriorly. 

Measurements.—Type: Head and body, 511 mm.; tail, 22; hind foot, 115. 
Skull (type): Greatest length, 114.2; condylobasal leneth, 103. 7s zygomatic 
breadth, 51.8; interorbital constriction, oHlbar length of nasals, 41. 5: maxillary 
toothrow (alveoli), 17.8. 

Remarks.—The agoutis of the D. punctata group subdivide in Middle 
America into several closely allied, but fairly well marked geographic races. 
D. p. underwood: is based on a single specimen which appears to be quite dis- 
tinctive, as shown by comparison with neighboring forms including speci- 
mens assumed to be near typical D. p. punctata, the type of which probably 
came from western Nicaragua (See Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soe. Washington, 
vol. 30, p. 114, May 23, 1917). 


1 Received October 18, 1931. 


482 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 19 


ZOOLOGY .—A new kinkajou from Mexico. E. W. Newson and E. 
A. GOLDMAN, Biological Survey. 

In reviewing the kinkajous of Mexico (Potos flavus group) the 
writers have noted characters which seem to warrant the recognition 
by name of the geographic race inhabitating the region of the Yueatan 
peninsula. The new form is described as follows: 


Potos flavus campechensis subsp. nov. 
Campeche Kinkajou 


Type.—From La Tuxpefia, Champoton, Campeche, Mexico. No. 181266, 
2 adult, U. S. National Museum (Biological Survey collection), collected by 
Percy W. Shufeidt, February 12, 1913. X catalogue number 10234. 

Distribution. —Campeche, Tabasco, northern Guatemala and probably all 
of Yucatan peninsula; limits of range unknown. 

General Characters.—A light-colored, medium-sized subspecies, very similar 
in general to Potos flavus chiriquensis of western Panama, but lighter in color, 
the head, and front and sides of legs and feet less shaded with dusky; skull 
narrower and differing in detail. Similar in general size to P. f. guerrerensis 
of western Mexico, but upper parts less overlaid with dusky ; cranial characters 
distinctive. Differing from P. f. aztecus of the Gulf slope in Vera Cruz mainly 
in decidedly smaller size and lighter color. 

Color—Type: Upper parts in general near clay color (Ridgway, 1912), 
purest on face, flanks, and outer sides of limbs, the top of head and back 
thinly overlaid with brown; under parts, including inner sides of limbs and 
under side of tail near ochraceous buff, becoming brownish abruptly along a 
narrow median line on the abdomen and a spot immediately behind the naked 
gular patch; ears thinly clothed with light buffy hairs; feet about like outer 
sides of limbs, not distinctly dusky as usual in the group; tail above about like 
back, becoming more brownish toward tip. 

Skull.—Similar in general form to that of P. f. chiriquensis, but braincase 
narrower; frontal region rising similarly high anteriorly but somewhat more 
depressed behind postorbital processes; postorbital processes more compressed 
or flattened antero-posteriorly, less rounded and peg-like; bullae usually 
larger, more inflated anteriorly; dentition very similar. Compared with 
P. f. guerrerensis the skull is relatively narrower, more elongated; frontal 
region higher anteriorly, more depressed behind postorbital processes (frontal 
profile more evenly arched in guerrerensis) ; audital bullae much less inflated. 
Differing from aztecus in decidedly smaller size. 

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 997 mm.; tail vertebrae, 513; hind 
foot, 90. Skull (type): Greatest length (median line), 95.4; condylobasal 
length, 88.2; zygomatic breadth, 60.8; interorbital breadth, 20 ; postorbital 
constriction, 18.8; breadth across mastoid processes, 47.2; breadth of brain- 
case, 37.8; upper toothrow, front of canine to back of last molar (alveoli), 
25.8. 

Remarks.—In general combination of cranial characters P. f. campechensis 
tends to bridge the gap between P. f. chiriquensis, of which over 20 specimens 
have been available for comparison, and the more northern representatives 
of the Potos flavus group. The skull is more slender, however, than usual in 
the nearly related forms, and the lighter coloration appears to 'be distinctive. 


1 Received October 18, 1931. 


Nov. 19, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 483 


Pallid coloration, apparently associated with general aridity, characterizes 
a considerable number of the animals of the Yucatan peninsula region and the 
representative there of P. flavus is, apparently, no exception. 
Specimens examined.—Total number, 4, as follows: 

Campeche: La Tuxpefia (type locality), 1. 

Tabasco: Las Minas, 1 (skull only) 

Guatemala: Perdida, Peten, 1 (skull only); northern Guatemala (with- 

out definite locality), 1. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


THE ACADEMY 


242D MEETING 

The 242d meeting of the AcADEMY was a joint meeting with the Society of 
Sigma Xi, and was held in the Auditorium of the Interior Department Build- 
ing, F’. Street, between 18th and 19th Streets, on Monday, October 26, 1931. 
About 400 persons were present. President N. A. Coss called the meeting to 
order at 8:30 P.M., and made the introductory remarks, then turned over 
the chairmanship to Dr. P. R. Herz who introduced Professor WILLEM DE 
Sitter, Director of the Observatory at Leyden, Holland and Past President 
of the International Astronomical Union, who delivered an address on The 
origin of the planetary system: 

The solar system shows many features that cannot be due to chance but 
must have an explanation in the origin of the system. All the planets move 
around the sun in planes that are inclined at very small angles to each other. 
They all move in the same direction. The satellites move around the planets 
in planes which again have small inclinations with the planes of their families 
and also in the same direction. The axial rotations of the planets and of the 
sun itself are in the same direction and the equatorial planes have again small 
inclinations from the orbital planes. All the orbits are nearly circular. The 
masses of the planets are small as compared with that of the sun. The masses 
of the satellites are small compared with those of the planets. The only 
two notable exceptions are our own moon of which the mass is as much as 1/80 
of the mass of the earth and the rings of Saturn which are a formation that is 
unique in the solar system. Other exceptions, large inclinations and revolu- 
tions in the opposite direction, occur only at the very outskirts of the system or 
in subordinate systems. All these irregularities call for an explanation which 
must be found in the origin of the system. 

The well known hypothesis, known by the names of Kant and Laplace, 
has held the field for over a century. It really consists of two hypotheses, 
namely, that the sun and the planets were formed by condensation from a 
gaseous nebula and that the planets were separated from the sun as a result 
of the centrifugal force due to rotation of this nebula. There are several 
objections to this hypothesis. In its original form it is supposed that by the 
rotation, a ring of matter somewhat similar to the rings of Saturn was thrown 
off from the equator of the rotating sun and that the planets were formed by 
condensation of matter constituting this ring, in one point of it. It has been 
shown by Darwin that this is impossible. But even omitting the ring as an 
intermediary stage, the hypothesis was shown to be untenable. Mathemati- 
eal analysis proves that rotation can give rise to only two configurations, 
namely, either a double star or a spiral nebula, both of which exist in the 
stellar universe in many and great numbers. But rotation can never produce 


484 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 19 


a stellar system consisting of one central body attended by a number of 
relatively small planets. 

Another theory which was already suggested by Babinet i in 1861 is that 
the planets were thrown out of the body of the sun by the attraction of another 
celestial body passing at a very short distance. ‘The first result of an en- 
counter of this kind would be that a filament of matter was drawn out from 
the sun towards the passing star. This filament, after the star had passed 
away, would break up into different fractions some of which would be large 
and constitute the planets, while a considerable part of the mass of the fila- 
ment would either fall back on to the sun or be dissolved into a medium of 
gaseous molecular constitution, which would in the course of time partly fall 
down on the sun and planets and partly be dissolved into space. The effect 
of this medium on the motion of the planets would be to make the orbits 
circular as the result of friction. ‘Those parts which would fall back on the 
sun would impart to the sun the momentum acquired from the passing star 
and thus produce the rotation of the sun in the same direction as the revolution 
of all the planets. The orbits of the planets would be very elliptical in the 
beginning and only be reduced to circles gradually due to the effect of the 
resisting medium and only at first perihelion passage in the elliptical orbit, 
the satellites would be drawn out from the planet by the action of the sun in 
the same way as the planets were drawn out from the sun by the star. 

This theory thus explains all the major features of the solar system. It 
explains why all motions are in the same direction and in the same plane and 
why all the orbits are nearly circular. The rotation of the sun and planets 
in the same direction and in the same plane is explained by matter falling 
back on them. In working it out numerically, Dr. Harold Jeffreys has found 
that on the whole the theory is very satisfactory, and in particular, the time 
required for the resisting medium to reduce the eccentricity of the orbit of 
Mercury to its present value agrees approximately with the age of the earth 
as derived from geological evidence. There is one difficulty, however, and 
that is that the momentum of the matter falling back is not sufficient to ex- 
plain the rotation of the sun and the planets. Jeffreys, therefore, about two 
years ago, suggested that the encounter was not only a near approach but an 
actual collision between two suns, the shortest distance between the centers 
being of the order of 4/5 of the sum of the diameters. This would provide 
a sufficient explanation for the rotation while the other results from the 
theory would be very little changed. (Avuthor’s abstract.) 

CnHaRLes THom, Recording Secretary. 


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Vou. 21 DECEMBER 4, 1931 No. 20 


BOTAN Y.—Notes on yagé, a drug plant of southeastern Colombia. C. 
V. Morton, U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by E. P. 
KILLIP. ) 


The National Museum has recently received from Mr. Guillermo 
Klug, of Iquitos, Peru, a large collection of plants obtained by him in 
the Putumayo region of southeastern Colombia. Mr. Klug became 
especially interested in various drug plants used by the natives as 
stimulants, and included herbarium specimens of these in his collec- 
tion. Three of the plants, known to the Indians under the general 
name of yagé, belong to the genus Banisteriopsis C. B. Robinson 
(Family Malpighiaceae), subgenus Hubanisteriopsts Morton, nomen 
novum (Banisteria subgenus Hubanisteria Niedenzu). The necessity 
for using the name Banisteriopsis for this genus has been discussed by 
the author in a former paper.2. The type of the genus (and subgenus) 
is Banstertopsis argentea (Kunth) Robinson & Small. 


Banisteriopsis inebrians Morton, sp. nov. 


Sect. Camptostylis, Subsect. Cosmiothamnus. Liana altissima plus quam 30 
m. scandens, ramulis jam hornotinis demum usque 4 mm. diametro fuscesen- 
tibus glabratis teretibus striatis lenticellis numerosis instructis, internodiis 
5-6 cm. longis; lamina foliorum oppositorum late elliptica basi rotundata 
obliqua apice solum acuta, ca. 11 cm. longa, 6.5 em. lata, supra laevis nitida 
olivaceo-viridis, subtus concolor mox utrinque glabrata (pilis perpaucis 
persistentibus exceptis), margine paullo revoluta subcoriacea, nervis mediis 
primariisque supra depressis subtus elevatis prominentibusque, utrinque 
jam demum dense strigosis, nervis primariis utrinque 4 vel 5 valde decurrenti- 
bus, basi nervorum infimorum glandulas 2 magnas nigras gerentibus, nervis 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received 
October 28, 1931. 
2 “A new Banisterta from Brazil and British Guiana,”’ Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 43: 157. 


1930. 
485 


486 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 20 


secundariis inter se parallelis vix prominulis; petiolus 10-12 mm. longus, ea. 
1.5 mm. crassus, supra valde canaliculatus strigosus eglanduliferus; stipulae 
ad glandulas pubescentes magnas demum deciduas reductae; flores non 
suppetunt; inflorescentia axillaris, fructu vix ultra 5 em. longa, paullulum 
composita, rhachi 4-9 umbellas gerente, umbellis ipsiis 4-floris, pedunculo 
inflorescentiae 6-14 mm. longo, pedunculis umbellarum 12-14 mm. longis, 
pedicellis sessilibus 13-14 mm. longis, sicut pedunculis persistente pubes- 
centibus; sepala ovata obtusa puberula ca. 4 mm. longa, inecurva, glandulas 
8 oblongas ca. 2 mm. longas gerentia; styli recti apice orbiculari-capitati, 
anticus 3.5 mm. longus rectus 2 posticis crassior longior; samarae nuce densis- 
sime sericeae, ceterum demum parce strigosae; nux nigro-fusca oblonga, uno 
latere solum reticulato-rugosa, altero in alulas vel aculeos biseriatos ad 2 mm. 
longos excrescens, areola ventrali orbiculari 5-5.5 mm. diametro concava; ala 
dorsalis fere verticalis, late semiobdeltoidea, ca. 3.5 cm. longa, basi ca. 7 mm. 
lata, infra apicam ca. 16 mm. lata, margine antico incrassato recto basi vix 
appendiculato, margine postico curvato crenulato. 

Banisteriopsis caapi? diversa esse patet: petiolis subgracilibus apice 2 
glandulis magnis instructis, stipulis minutis subulatis, laminis foliorum longe 
acuminatis, majoribus (usque 17 cm. longis, 6-9 cm. latis), nervis mediis et 
primariis demum glabris, inflorescentia valde majore, pedunculis umbellarum 
subnullis, stylo antico 2 posticis breviore, et ala samarae oblique oblongo- 
obovata. B. quitensis* a nostra differs videtur: foliis longe acuminatis, fere 
eglanduliferis, stipulis parvis, inflorescentia terminali (?), magna 3 dm. longa, 
stylo antico 2 posticis breviore, lateribus nucis leviter solum tuberculatis 
fere laevibus, et alis minoribus (2.5 cm. longis, 11 mm. latis), obliquo-oblongis. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,517,293, collected at Umbria, 
0° 54’ N, 76° 10’ W, Comisaria del Putumayo, Colombia, in forest, alt. 325 
meters, Jan.-Febr., 1931, by G. Klug (no. 1964). 


Mr. Klug’s note reads, ‘1964. ‘Yagé del monte.’ From root to tip, more 
than 30 meters long. It takes 6 men to drag the lower half when cut. I 
estimate that this half weighs more than 500 kg.’”’ Over 60 herbarium sheets 
of this plant were prepared by Mr. Klug, all of which have been examined in 
preparing the above description. 

The related species Banisteriopsis caapr and B. quitensis are also 
powerful drug plants. The former is more closely related, differing in 
having the petioles bi-glandular at apex, the stipules minute and 
subulate, long acuminate leaves with glabrous midvein and nerves, 
the inflorescence much larger, the peduncles of the umbels very short, 
the anterior style shorter than the two posterior, and the samara wing 
obliquely oblong-obovate. B. quitensis has quite differently shaped 
samaras from those of our species. It is however perhaps much more 
nearly related to B. caapi than its disposition by Niedenzu would 

3 Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce) Morton, nomen novum. (Banisleria caapi Spruce; 
Grisebach in Flora Brasiliensis 12!:; 43. 1858.) 


4 Banisteriopsis quitensis (Ndzu.) Morton, nomen novum. (Banisteria quitensis 
Ndzu. in Ind. lect. Lyc. Brunsverg p. hiem. 1900-1901: 10. 1900.) 


prc. 4, 1931 MORTON: NOTES ON YAGH 487 


indicate. The character which he stresses, namely the long-decurrent 
primary veins, is a variable one, being found in all three of the species 
here discussed. The length of the decurrent portion is apparently far 
from constant and is probably of no diagnostic value. 

The following notes on the use and effect of the drug yagé are kindly 
supplied by Mr. Klug. The yagé cultwado referred to (Klug 1934) 
is apparently Banisteriopsis quitensis, but the specimen is sterile and 
the determination therefore doubtful. The specimens of oco yagé or 
chagro panga (Klug 1971) also are sterile. The leaves however appear 
to be very like those of Banistertopsis rusbyana,®> of which two sheets 
of the type collection® are in the U. 8. National Herbarium. 


“One of the most interesting plants found in the region of the upper courses 
of the Putumayo and Caqueta Rivers is the yagé. The Indians make a 
beverage from either the wild or cultivated yagé, boiling it in a large earthen- 
ware vessel an entire day until there is formed a sort of liquid, like the syrup 
of sugar cane. They add to the yagé the leaves and the young shoots of the 
branches of the oco yagé or chagro panga (no. 1971), and it is the addition of 
this plant which produces the ‘bluish aureole” of their visions. These are 
like cinematograph views, and occur after about a half liter of the drink has 
been consumed in portions an eighth of a liter each at intervals of half an 
hour. Thereafter, the Indian falls into a profound sleep during which he is 
in a state of complete insensibility and anesthesia. During this period the 
subconscious activity acquires enormous intensity. The dreams follow each 
other with extraordinary precision and clearness. giving to the intoxicated 
person, according to the observations of missionaries, the power of double 
vision, and of seeing things at a distance, like certain mediums in their trances. 
Upon awakening, he retains clearly the hallucinations and fantastic visions 
which he experienced in unknown regions. Perhaps this drug has the prop- 
erty of developing the psychic faculties. In 1919 Dr. Zerda Bayon, special- 
ist in the chemistry of plants, gave this plant the name Telepatina. 

“Prof. Barriga Villalba experimented upon animals with the yageina, which 
he succeeded in isolating, with the following results: If a horse has a weak 
dose of a few centigrams per kilogram of its weight injected into it an extreme 
excitation is produced, and the animal runs in all directions. The body 
begins to tremble and the animal maintains its equilibrium with the greatest 
difficulty. With a larger dose, something like twenty centigrams per kilo- 
gram, the yageina becomes a real poison, and the animal loses its equilibrium, 
cries, falls into convulsions, its temperature is lowered, and anesthesia becomes 


5 Banisteriopsis Rusbyana (Ndzu.) Morton, nomen novum (Banisteria rusbyana 
Ndzu. in Ind. Lect. Lyc. Brunsberg. p. aest. 1901: 19. 1901). 
8 Beni River, Bolivia. July, 1886, Rusby 2171; distributed as Hiraea. 


488 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 20 


general. The same results were obtained with dogs, in which complete 
anesthesia without loss of vision or sense of smell was proved. 

“The small doses which Barriga Villalba tried upon himself produced a 
profound sleep and certain sensations of well-being. But this was very far 
from being the effect on the savages, for which reason Professor Mufioz, of 
Colombia, employed 30 to 40 grams of the drink, prepared according to the 
manner of the natives. Effect: At first there was a slight stimulation of the 
nerves, similar to that of caffein, then a slight dilation of the pupils. All 
exterior objects acquired a strange appearance, aureoled and of a blue color. 
Then came the most extraordinary hallucinations, resembling those of hashish, 
very magnificent, very terrifying. These are due without doubt to the exeita- 
tion of the cerebral centers of vision, the sensibility of which is such, that the 
person who has taken yagé is capable of seezng objects 7n the midst of the most 
complete obscurity. 

“In Umbria I have had occasion to converse with persons of education 
who have told me of taking yagé, prepared by the savages (but without the 
addition of the leaf of chagro panga or oco-yagé) for the cure of malaria from 
which they suffered, and they have assured me that with three drinks of this 
(about 150 grams) they have been cured completely, and that for several 
years they have not suffered further from this illness.” 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED 
SOCIETIES 


GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


478TH MEETING 


The 478th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the 
Cosmos Club, April 22, 1931, President O. EK. Mrrnzmr presiding. 

Informal communications: H. D. Miser described certain small anticlines 
exposed in the Cason shale at the Cason manganese mine near Batesville, 
Arkansas, and ascribed them to compaction of the shale above an irregular 
buried topography. The Cason shale rests unconformably on the Fernvale 
limestone, the relief of the surface of unconformity being about one foot. 
Above each buried hill the shale is folded into an anticline and above each 
valley it is folded into a syncline. The folds are not aligned and they die 
out about 3 feet above the top of the limestone. The shale contains fossil 
algae that are normally spherical but that are so flattened in the Cason shale 
that their present minor diameters are about one-third their original lengths. 
The major diameters are parallel to the bedding of the shale. It is believed, 
therefore, that the shale has been compacted to about one third its original 
thickness. Miser pointed out that some believe such folds yield part of the 
petroleum in the mid-Continent oil fields. 

Regular program: C. N. Fenner and A. L. Day: Borehole investigations in 
the geyser basin of Yellowstone National Park.—For a number of years the 
Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington has been 


pDEc. 4, 1931 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 489 


making a comprehensive study of the geysers and hot springs of Yellowstone 
Park. In connection with this study exploratory boreholes have been put 
down to a depth of several hundred feet at two sites in order to determine the 
underground conditions on which the surface manifestations of geyser activity 
are dependent. The first hole was drilled in 1929 in Old Faithful Basin, and 
the second in 1930 in Norris Basin. At both sites the holes were in hot 
areas not far from active vents. 

At Old Faithful the drill penetrated beds of indurated sand and gravel to a 
depth of 220 feet. These sediments apparently had been accumulated in 
basins overdeepened by glacial scour. The component material is rhyolite, 
now much altered by the circulating hot water and consolidated by the deposi- 
tion of secondary minerals. From 220 feet to the bottom of the hole at 405 
feet, rock in place was penetrated. This bedrock was likewise rhyolite, 
either glassy or lithoidal. The temperature in the hole increased progressively 
though somewhat irregularly to a maximum of 180°C. at the bottom. Steam 
which contained small amounts of hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide was 
encountered, the maximum pressure being 57 pounds to the square inch. 

In both the sediments and in the underlying rock there were numerous 
small seams and fissures in which opaline silica, quartz, chalcedony, adularia, 
calcite, and the zeolites analcite and clinoptilolite had been deposited together 
with other secondary minerals. Even the unfractured rock was likewise 
impregnated with these minerals. 

In the second hole, drilled in the Norris Basin, sedimentary beds such as 
were found at Old Faithful were lacking, and rhyolite in place was encountered 
just below the surface. This rock has been considerably altered, with the 
formation of quartz, adularia, and tridymite. Hydrogen sulphide was evi- 
dently more abundant than at Old Faithful and consequently pyrite is a 
fairly abundant secondary mineral. In the Norris hole the maximum tem- 
perature was 205°C. 

In the borehole in the Norris basin steam pressure as great as 300 pounds to 
the square inch was encountered. ‘This is the highest pressure on record for 
such drilling projects, and it increased the difficulties enormously. The 
bedrock was found to be much fissured, and there was apprehension that it 
might be uplifted bodily and a great crater formed. Drilling operations were 
slowed down greatly, and finally when the hole was 265 feet deep, a break 
developed in the casing, probably produced by the abrasion of the grit carried 
by the uprushing steam. No means of repairing the casing was found, and 
it brought operations to a close at a less depth than had been contemplated. 
Difficulties such as those encountered in drilling this hole must be contended 
with in any attempt to tap underground sources of power under similar 
conditions, or to put down holes for investigative purposes. 

It is believed that the data on rock texture and underground temperatures 
that were obtained in these holes will permit amplification of Bunsen’s theory 
of geyser action in a number of respects, and will explain various manifesta- 
tions visible at the surface. Detailed petrographic and chemical studies of 
the drill cores are still in progress. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. JOHNSTON and SHENON. 

W. H. Bucuer: The mobile belts of the earth.—The structural features of 
the face of the earth result from the deformation of the crust. Two mutually 
incompatible views as to the physical character of this crust are being held 


490 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 20 


by geologists at present. One assumes that the acid and basic materials of 
the crust differ so much in strength that the acid materials can maintain their 
form in pushing laterally through the basic materials and also in extending 
downward into levels of higher temperature. The other view assumes that 
the strength of both materials is of the same order of magnitude. In the 
second case the base of the crust, that is, the zone in which the strength reaches 
zero, is a fairly smooth surface from 30 to 100 miles below the earth’s surface. 

A number of observations have convinced the writer that the first view is 
untenable. Two of these are: (1) If there were an essential difference be- 
tween the strength of basic and acid materials, it should result in correspond- 
ing differences in surface forms produced by structural deformation. This 
does not seem to be true. Essential features of what are commonly called 
“orabens’ for instance, are seen to be identical on continents and on sea 
bottoms. (e. g. Bartlett Trough; Tanganyika Trough, etc.) (2) Shepherd 
and Greig have demonstrated experimentally that the temperature at which 
rocks of granitic composition would flow is much lower than for basalt. 

Adopting the second view, we think of the crust as a definite shell which is 
capable of transmitting stresses. The presence of long linear structural 
features points to stresses which acted on the crust at large. The most strik- 
ing features of this type are the long belts of mountain folding (e. g. Antillean 
system and the Alpine Mountains of Europe, N. Africa, and Asia) and of 
graben faulting (e. g. African fault belts of which rift valleys are a conspicuous 
part). This paper deals with the relation between these two extreme types 
of linear crustal deformations. 

The chief structural features of the fault belts are believed to owe their 
existence to tensional stresses. Besides these, however, there are indubitable 
evidences of compressive stresses. This is reflected in a curious way by the 
fact that the same series of hypotheses of origin have been suggested for three 
conspicuous examples: the Rhine graben, the African rift valleys, and the 
Great Basin. (‘‘Key-stone” theories of Elie de Beaumont, Gregory, and Le 
Conte, 1878; tensional theories of Suess and Le Conte, 1888; compressive 
wedge theories of Andreae, Wayland, and Link). 

The writer believes that these three typical regions originated under 
tensional stresses and were modified by subsequent compressive stresses. 
The distinctive feature of these belts is that under compressive stresses they 
developed a minimum of mobility. The writer, correspondingly, designates 
them as ‘‘fracture belts of low mobility.” 

Such regions as the areas of Saxonian folding in northern Germany and 
the Coast Ranges of California of post-Franciscan time display a curious 
combination of fault-block pattern and rock folding. ‘The writer contends 
that the fault dislocations took place under tensional stresses in epochs of 
general crustal expansion and that they were modified by compression in 
epochs of crustal contraction. This is the same sequence as that inferred 
for the fracture belts of low mobility. In this second case, there is much 
greater mobility, but it is localized due to the mosaic arrangement of the 
fault blocks. The writer designates this type ‘‘heterogeneous mobile belts.” 

The true “‘mobile belts,’ such as the Appalachian and Alpine systems, are 
characterized by intensive folding, essentially without normal faulting. 
Their history involves a major problem which is apt to be overlooked. The 
folding always follows a period of ‘‘geosynclinal” sinking, but at least during 


DEC. 4, 1931 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 49] 


long intervals of these “geosynclinal’’ epochs, sinking took place without 
upward movements of one or both margins. This isshown by the very thick 
series of pure limestone which are so characteristic of such “geosynclinal’’ 
belts. (‘‘Hochgesbirgskalk”’ of the Alps; Cambro-Ordovician limestones of 
the Appalachians). The writer knows of no adequate explanation of the 
origin of such long, relatively narrow troughs that sink continuously for long 
intervals of time without any mountain-making movements. The analogy of 
the ‘‘fracture belts of low mobility”’ and of the “heterogeneous mobile belts”’ 
suggests that these “homogeneous mobile belts” likewise owe their origin to 
tensional crustal stresses which create the geosynclines while later compressive 
stresses throw them into folds. It seems reasonable to assume that just as 
folding takes place with all signs of a much greater mobility than is displayed 
in the other two types, so the yielding under tension owes its peculiar ‘“Shomo- 
geneous” character to greater ‘‘mobility.”” The writer, then, suggests that 
these three types of major linear elements of structure form a gradational 
series that are produced by the same alternation of crustal tension and com- 
pression, and that differ merely in the manner of their reaction to these stresses. 

One characteristic common to all three types is frequently overlooked; 
namely, that later belts may intersect earlier ones at any conceivable angle. 
This independence of later from earlier mobile belts is very difficult to under- 
stand unless just such an alternation of tension and compression in the crust is 
assumed, as seems to be indicated by the structural history of the belts them- 
selves. (Author’s abstract.) 

Discussed by Messrs. Moort, FERGuson, Rusry, and G. R. MANSFIELD. 


Car LE H. Dane and A. M. PipEr, Secretaries. 


SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 


The Innsbruck meetings of the International Commission on the Polar 
Year were held September 23, 25, and 26. Among the many resolutions 
passed one provided that there should be no postponement of date since so 
many governments were participating. 


Five meetings of the International Commission of Terrestrial Magnetism 
and Atmospheric Electricity were held at Innsbruck September 21, 22, and 23. 


Observations made on the Graf Zeppelin’s arctic flight last July indicate 
that sea fog in the arctic is a relatively thin blanket varying from a few hun- 
dred to one thousand feet that can be easily surmounted in aerial navigation. 


A general meeting of Aeroarctic is to be held in Berlin, November 7, 8, 
and 9. 


The International Electrical Congress will meet at Paris in July 1932. 


The recently formed Section of Hydrology of the American Geophysical 
Union announces the organization of a Committee on the Hydrology of 
Glaciers, composed of the following men: STEPHEN R. Capps, Senior Geol- 
ogist, Alaska Branch, U. 8. Geological Survey: Dr. Harry FreLp1InG ReEIp, 
~ Professor Emeritus of Dynamic Geology, Johns Hopkins University; G. L. 
ParkeER, District Engineer, Water Resources Branch, U. 8. Geological 
Survey; Cart P. Ricuarps, Chairman of the Research Committee of the 
Mazamas, Portland, Ore.; R. H. Sarcent, Senior Topographic Engineer, 
Alaska Branch, U.S. Geological Survey; Dr. WatuacrE R. Atwoop, Assistant, 


492 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 20 


Branch of Research and Education, National Park Service; Francois E. 
Matrues, Senior Geologist, Section of Glacial Geology, U. S. Geological 
Survey, Chairman. The functions of the committee correspond in general to 
those of the Glacier Commission appointed by the Section of Scientific 
Hydrology of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union in Europe 
and will consist principally in securing systematic records of the annual 
variations of American glaciers. 


KennetH D. Lonman, A. M. 1930, California Institute of Technology, 
has been appointed Assistant Geologist in the Geological Survey. 


J. P. Marsue, recently instructor at Harvard University, is making de- 
terminations of the age of certain uranium minerals, by means of their lead- 
uranium ratios, in the chemical laboratory of the Geological Survey. 


CHARLES Mitton, Ph. D. 1929, Johns Hopkins University, has been 
appointed a geochemist in the Geological Survey. 


Prof. KanzamMon Kuxkucut, in charge of the Department of Biology, 
Toyama High School, Toyama, Japan, has come to the National Museum 
for the purpose of examining its collections of oriental invertebrates. He 
is particularly interested in crustacea and mollusks, and is determining a 
number of specimens that he has gathered in the course of his Japanese faunal 
studies. He expects to be in Washington for some weeks. 


Dr. TEmcH1 Kosayasui of the Geological Institute, Imperial University, 
Tokyo, Japan, accompanied by his wife, has arrived at the National Museum 
with large collections of early Paleozoic fossils. He intends to remain here 
for perhaps a year and a half to study these fossils where related forms are 
available for comparison. These collections are mainly from South Korea 
which is practically a virgin territory from a geological standpoint. 


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a 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Vou. 21 DEcEMBER 19, 1931 No. 21 


PHYSICS.—Certain aspects of Henry’s experiments on electromagnetic 
induction JosEPH SS. Ames, Johns Hopkins University. 
(Communicated by L. H. ApaAms.) 


I regard it as a great honor to be invited to give the first of a series 
of lectures before the Washington Philosophical Society, to be known 
as the Joseph Henry lectures, established in honor of the founder and 
the first President of the Society. 

I think it is undoubtedly proper for me to choose as the topic of this 
first lecture one which is related to the life of Joseph Henry, partly be- 
cause of the association of his name with the lectureship, but also 
because this year is recognized as the one hundredth anniversary of the 
discovery of the phenomena of electromagnetic induction, a discovery 
with which the name of Joseph Henry will always be associated. 

This discovery of electromagnetic induction marked the beginning 
of the modern era of electricity and in fact of the modern era of physics, 
and it is therefore most fitting that a celebration of the centennial 
anniversary of the discovery should take place. Last month such a cele- 
bration was held in London at the Royal Institution, to commemorate 
the part Michael Faraday played in the discovery. Although he was 
anticipated in this by Joseph Henry, so far as both mutual induction 
and self induction are concerned, Faraday will always be regarded, 
properly I think, as their real discoverer because he was the first to 
publish the results of his investigations and pointed out at the time of 
his first announcement the possibility of making practical application 
of them. Joseph Henry, himself, although he deeply regretted the 
fact that he had delayed publication of his investigations, always gave 


1 An address delivered before the Philosophical Society of Washington on October 24, 
1931. Received November 12, 1931. 


493 


494 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


full credit to Faraday and was scrupulously careful to refer to him as 
the discoverer. ‘The newspapers, magazines and scientific periodicals 
have called attention repeatedly during the past two months to the 
work of Faraday and to his greatness as an experimenter and as a 
philosopher of nature. Rather scant notice has been given to the work 
of Joseph Henry, one writer saying that he “probably anticipated”’ 
Faraday; and my real reason for selecting the topic I have for this 
evening is my desire to impress upon all of you who listen to me the 
essential facts of Henry’s great discoveries. Certainly whenever an 
American physicist hears the words, induced currents, the first thought 
that should come to his mind is “Joseph Henry discovered these.”’ 

It will indeed be superfluous for me to give a sketch of the life of 
Henry or to refer in detail to the long series of his brilliant investiga- 
gations in the varied fields of physics or to his great contributions to the 
scientific life of this country. Anyone who is interested in these mat- 
ters should read the address by Professor William B. Taylor which 
was read before this society fifty-three years ago this month and which 
was published by the government in a volume devoted to the life and 
scientific work of Henry, and especially the excellent article by Pro- 
fessor Magie in the October number of Reviews of Modern Physics. 

I intend to confine myself this evening to the question of induced 
electric currents and, even more narrowly, to the original experiments 
of Henry, calling attention particularly to the dates at which his dis- 
coveries were made. I must begin, however, by making as the back- 
ground of my paper a statement concerning the scientific knowledge 
available at the time Henry began his experiments and also a descrip- 
tion of Henry’s environment, so that you may understand more clearly 
the stimulus which animated him and the difficulties under which he 
labored. 

In 1819 Oersted made the discovery that an electric current flowing 
in a conductor exerted a force upon a magnet and this great event was, 
of course, followed at once by investigations all over Europe. In the 
following year Schweigger devised his multiplier consisting of an ar- 
rangement by which a magnetic needle came under the influence of 
several turns of wire, and thus perfected a rather sensitive instrument 
for the detection of an electric current. In this same year, 1820, Arago 
and Davy discovered independently that a steel needle placed axially 
inside a helix of wire became magnetized when an electric current was 
passed through the helix. In this experiment of Arago’s the wire was 


pDEc. 19, 1931 AMES: HENRY’S EXPERIMENTS 495 


uncovered and was wrapped in a loose helix around a glass tube, the 
needle being placed inside this tube. In the same year also Ampére 
began his brilliant series of studies on the action of currents on magnets 
and of currents on currents, resulting in the discovery of phenomena 
which form the basis of electrodynamics. In these experiments Am- 
pére used single turns of bare wire. In 1825 William Sturgeon of Wool- 
wich, England really developed the electromagnet by winding uncovy- 
ered wire around an iron bar, which was insulated from the wire, the 
iron bar itself being bent into the shape of a horseshoe so that an arma- 
ture could be placed across its two ends. In this electromagnet Stur- 
geon used eighteen turns, loosely coiled. ‘These were the essential 
facts concerning the relations between electricity and magnetism 
known to the scientific world at the time Henry began his studies. 

In 1826 Joseph Henry was elected Professor of Mathematics and of 
Natural Philosophy at the Albany Academy. ‘This was one of the 
outstanding High Schools of the State of New York and the work done 
there compared favorably with that characteristic of some of the col- 
leges of that day. He was twenty-seven years old at the time of his 
appointment and his interests were already centered in the study of 
natural philosophy, his attention having been called to the subject 
when he was fifteen years old by the chance reading of a book which he 
had found left on a table by a man boarding with his mother. This 
book, Dr. G. Gregory’s Lectures on Experimental Philosophy, Astron- 
omy and Chemistry, made a great impression upon the boy’s mind, and 
it is recorded that the owner gave it to him and that he kept it with him 
throughout his entire life. It aroused his intellectual curiosity and 
inspired him with a desire to answer questions dealing with nature. 
He set to work at once to perfect himself for this life of investigation, 
and after some years of study, teaching and tutoring, during which 
time he presented several papers before the local Scientific Society, the 
Albany Institute, he was chosen unanimously to fill the position I have 
mentioned. Albany at that time was a small city practically on the 
frontier, remote from centers of scholarship or of study, but the Albany 
Academy was a very worthy institution. It occupied a large building 
in the center of the city, consisting of classrooms and one good sized 
hall in its center, used for general purposes. There was no laboratory, 
of course, as such, and no apparatus of any kind; consequently Henry 
had to do everything with his own hands except so far as he could call 
upon a blacksmith to help. Schools in those days were rather serious- 
minded institutions and Henry was kept fully occupied with his classes 


496 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


as long as the school was operating, which was for practically ten months 
of the year. The sessions began the first of September and during all 
the time Henry was professor in the Academy the only opportunity he 
had for experimental investigations was during the summer vacations, 
and practically for only one month, the last part of July and the first 
part of August. When the vacation began Henry would set up his 
apparatus in the main hall of the building and he could work with it 
until in August the time came for the building to be cleaned and gotten 
ready for the classes which met, as I have said, the first of September. 
I must ask you to consider this situation and to contrast it with that 
of the investigators in Europe, especially of Faraday. Here was a 
man evidently full of ideas, evidently eager to add to knowledge and to 
test his theories by experiments; but he had no apparatus, he had no 
means to buy any even if it had been available and he had at his dis- 
posal only a few weeks of the year in which he could devote himself to 
what was really the purpose of his life. When one considers these 
circumstances it is extraordinary indeed that Henry should have been 
able to advance as far as he did. 
Henry read with eagerness everything that was published in regard 
to the connection between electricity and magnetism and as soon as he 
became a professor at the Albany Academy he began to make plans for 
the continuation of the experimental work of which he had read. The 
first thing he planned to do, naturally, was to repeat the work of others 
so as to convince himself of its accuracy and to become more familiar 
with the phenomena. In thinking over the experiments done by oth- 
ers he believed that he could increase the sensitiveness of the apparatus 
and could magnify the forces by an extremely simple device, which 
apparently had not occurred to anyone else. ‘This was to use coils 
of insulated wire in place of single turns, and in October, 1827 he dem- 
onstrated before the Albany Institute the various experiments of 
Ampére and others using coils and thus magnifying the effect greatly. 
In order to super-impose one layer of the coil upon another layer, thus 
forming a bobbin, it was obviously necessary to insulate the wire it- 
self, which he did by wrapping the wire ‘“‘with silk,’’ as he says. Ihave 
heard from the family that “‘the silk” used by Henry in making some 
of his first coils was really a series of ribbons of silk obtained by the 
sacrifice on the part of his wife of her white silk petticoat. An electro- 
magnet made by Joseph Henry and used in his experiments is still in 
existence, being treasured in the museum at Princeton University, and 


pDEc. 19, 1931 AMES: HENRY’S EXPERIMENTS 497 


one can still see the white silk ribbons used in its construction, so I 
believe the story I have heard is true. 

One can hardly overestimate the importance of this device of Henry’s. 
No one up to this time had thought apparently of using insulated wire 
coiled in layers, and immediately after Henry described his apparatus 
all the investigators of Europe adopted the idea. Faraday in his orig- 
inal apparatus, used when he made his discovery of electromagnetic 
induction, wound bare wire on an insulated iron ring, the separate coils 
being kept apart by winding between them a long twine, the separate 
layers being kept apart by pieces of non-conducting cloth. One can- 
not tell by reading Faraday’s papers whether this idea was original with 
him or whether it was adopted after having seen Henry’s published 
paper. Asa matter of fact, in no one of Faraday’s papers is there any 
reference to the experimental work of Joseph Henry. 

Henry’s first application of this new principle of coiling long wires 
into a number of layers was in the construction of a small electromag- 
net which he exhibited before the Albany Academy in June, 1828; and, 
having found how successful it was, he made another more powerful 
one the following year, which he exhibited in March, 1829. He then 
had a new idea in regard to the winding of magnets and in the latter 
part of the same year made one in which he had two independent wind- 
ings over the whole length of the iron core, so that he could join these 
two in parallel. Then in order to make a magnet which could be used 
for many experimental purposes, in August, 1830 he wound one in a 
distinctly novel way, producing a magnet by far the most powerful 
then in existence. He wound the core of this magnet with nine sepa- 
rate coils, each coil occupying a space of about two inches. The 
terminals of each coil extended out from the side so that he was able to 
join the nine coils either in series or in parallel. This offered him a 
great variety of experimental possibilities. He investigated in connec- 
tion with this magnet the effect of using a number of voltaic cells 
arranged in parallel or in series and he emphasized the effect of having 
the cells when in series joined with the coils of his magnet also in series 
and similarly the effect of having either one cell or all the cells in paral- 
lel joined with the coils of his magnet when these were in parallel. He 
made a study of what we would today call Ohm’s law so far as the 
effect of the internal resistance of batteries is concerned and also per- 
formed many other experiments, some of which [ will refer to later. 
All this was in August, 1830. In November of the same year he saw in 


498 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


Brewster’s Edinborough Journal an account of some work done by the 
Dutch physicist, Moll, in regard to electromagnets and thought it best 
to write an account of his work up to that time upon the same subject. 
This he did in November and submitted it for publication in Szlliman’s 
Journal. It was published in January, 1831 and was Henry’s first 
scientific publication in a recognized scientific journal. It was charac- 
teristic of Henry for many years not to publish his results as soon as he 
had obtained them, but rather to wait until he had tested and investi- 
gated the various ideas which were in his mind on any one subject so 
that he would be convinced that he had exhausted the possibilities of 
that particular line of thought. This quality of his mind resulted 
naturally in the fact that so far as publication was concerned he was 
anticipated often and he was in several cases persuaded by his friends 
to write brief accounts of what he had done after the publication by 
others of their work. 

I refer above to experiments which Henry made with his final form 
of magnet, and these he did not include in his paper in Silliman’s 
Journal, which was confined simply to a description of his magnets. 
His reason for not publishing some of these experiments which were 
made in August, 1830 was because he intended to continue these further, 
and during August, 1831 he was very busy preparing some new appa- 
ratus one portion of which was a large reel containing a mile of wire and 
another was a much more powerful electromagnet. In a letter of No- 
vember 6, 1831 he says that he had been making this apparatus “for 
some contemplated experiments in the identity of electricity and mag- 
netism.”’ In another letter he says that he had to stop his work on this 
new apparatus because the room in which he was working was wanted 
for the classes of the Academy. It is clear, therefore, that in August, 
1831 he had been occupied with the construction of apparatus with the 
idea of continuing some of the work which he had begun in August, 1830 
and which he had not thought to be sufficiently advanced to justify 
publication. 

Immediately after the discovery of the fact that an electric current 
through a coil of wire would magnetize a piece of iron and in fact that a 
coil of wire carrying an electric current had magnetic properties, many 
investigators felt that there should be some way by which an electric 
current could be produced by means of a magnet and experiments of 
various kinds were tried. Among others, Michael Faraday of the 
Royal Institution, London, occupied himself with the problem for some 


pEc. 19, 1931 AMES: HENRY’S EXPERIMENTS 499 


years and on August 29th, 1831 began a series of experiments which 
finally solved the problem. He reported the essential features of his 
experiments to the Royal Institution and also to the Royal Society 
and preliminary accounts were published in the spring of 1832. Henry 
saw these probably in June of that year and thought it best to publish 
at once his preliminary investigations on the same subject, so that the 
first published account of his work appeared in the July, 1832 number 
of Silliman’s Journal. In this account he describes experiments on the 
production of electric currents by varying the magnetic field through a 
coil of wire and also an observation which he had made some years be- 
fore concerning the spark which is produced when an electric circuit is 
broken. He noted further that these two phenomena were evidently 
due to the same fundamental cause. I shall describe later the details 
of these experiments, but I wish at this time to call attention to the 
probable dates at which they were performed. In view of what I have 
said above I do not think there can be any doubt but that his observa- 
tions of induced electric currents due to a varying magnetic field were 
carried out in August, 1830 when he was working with his new magnet. 
In fact, he says explicitly that the observations were made by using this 
magnet. When he observed the spark produced at the breaking of a 
circuit and studied the effect on this spark of various forms of the cir- 
cuit it is quite impossible to say. It certainly was an early observa- 
tion and the date has been set by Joseph Henry’s daughter, Miss Mary 
Henry, asin 1829. ‘This is extremely probable and the claim, I think, 
is supported by various considerations. Miss Henry says that she 
often talked with her father concerning the early history of electro- 
magnetic induction and that he always spoke as if he had discovered 
induced currents in 1830 and made his first observations of self in- 
duction in 1829. I think it is very reasonable to believe that it was 
his observation of the electric spark on breaking a circuit and certain 
other phenomena to which I shall refer later, these being made in 
August, 1829, that led him to undertake the experiments which cul- 
minated in the discovery of induced currents in August, 1830 after he 
had completed his new magnet. In any case he saw so much ahead of 
him in August, 1830 calling for the construction of new apparatus that 
he thought it best not to publish his preliminary studies, so that August, 
1831 found him busy making the apparatus which he felt necessary to 
have available to continue his investigations. Then again, he was 
stopped in his work by the opening of the school session and probably 


500 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


he would not have published any full account of his studies until after 
August, 1832 if it had not been for the fact that he saw that Faraday 
had already made some of the discoveries with which he was familiar 
as the result of his own investigations. 

After Henry saw the brief notes concerning Faraday’s work he took 
up the problem anew, repeating some of Faraday’s work and extending 
his own, although the latter was very complete and convincing. 

Having made his powerful electromagnet, which I have described 
above (earlyin the summer of 1830), he wound a coil of wire around the 
armature of the magnet and led the terminals of the wires to an instru- 
ment for indicating current. He noticed that when he turned on the 
magnetizing current there was immediately a fling of the galvanoscope 
needle and that when he broke the magnetizing current there was a 
fling in the opposite direction. He further observed that when he 
turned the magnetizing current off and detached the armature there 
was also a fling of the galvanoscope needle, the amount of which varied 
according to the distance he moved the armature. Finally, he ob- 
served that when the armature was in place on the magnet and he va- 
ried the magnetizing current there was also a fling. So he felt justified 
in drawing the conclusion that there was an instantaneous current in 
one or the other direction in a helix of copper wire surrounding a piece 
of soft iron accompanying every change in the magnetic intensity of 
the iron. No statement concerning the production of induced electric 
currents could be any clearer than this. 

His observation of certain phenomena of self induction, probably 
made in 1829, was equally important. Having noticed this fact of the 
appearance of a spark which may have been and probably was a chance 
observation owing to some break in an electric circuit, he studied the 
effect of having the circuit consist of a short wire or a long one and also 
the effect of coiling a conductor into a spiral or helix, noting the in- 
creased effect when the latter was done. 

We have seen that in the summer of 1831 Henry was busy making a 
new magnet and new apparatus for experimental purposes. In 1832 
he was elected Professor of Natural Philosophy at the College of New 
Jersey, now Princeton, and he moved there with his family in Novem- 
ber of that year. The first few years of his incumbency were occupied 
with the immediate duties of his chair and he did not have an opportu- 
nity to continue his studies until 1834. In November of that year Far- 
aday published an account of his discovery of the phenomena of self 
induction and Henry’s friends persuaded him that it was his duty to 


janet 19,1931 AMES: HENRY’S EXPERIMENTS 501 


publish at once an account of what he had done on the same subject up 
to that time. This he did. He gave an oral account of his work 
before the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia at its meet- 
ing of January 16, 1835 and wrote a fuller account, which was published 
in Stllaman’s Journal. He had extended the observations to which I 
have referred above by investigating not alone the spark produced on 
breaking the circuit, but also the currents and the shock which accom- 
panied the break. He had also studied the effect of introducing iron 
into a helix and had really made great progress. From this time on 
Henry worked fairly continuously and, apparently having learned his 
lesson in regard to publication, communicated his results as soon as he 
was convinced that they were definite. He had been elected a mem- 
ber of the American Philosophical Society in 1834 and thereafter he 
communicated his results to this Society and they were published in its 
Transactions or Proceedings. 

He continued for some years his study of the phenomena of self 
induction and other effects of electromagnetic induction; in fact there 
was a constant series of publications on the subject till his election as 
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in December, 1846. 

In one series of experiments he investigated the effect of a discharge 
of a Leyden jar through his primary coil in producing induced currents 
in neighboring conductors and was ultimately led to the proof that such 
a discharge was oscillatory. (Conviction that this was the character 
of the discharge had been expressed previously in 1827, by Savaray, but 
this fact was not known by Henry.) He was able to prove also that 
this inductive action produced by discharges through a primary con- 
ductor was felt at considerable distances, certainly as far as two hun- 
dred feet. ‘This is the first experiment on record of electromagnetic 
waves (in 1842). 

One of his most important studies dealt with the effect of introduc- 
ing sheets of conductors between his primary and secondary coils (in 
1838). One of the main interests in this study lies in the fact that 
Henry’s observations were quite contrary to those announced by Far- 
aday. Henry showed that the introduction of a plate of copper cut off 
completely the inductive action, whereas Faraday had found that there 
was no shielding effect. The explanation of the discrepancy, which 
Henry, himself, was able to make, lies in the fact that Henry’s observa- 
tions were on what we nowadays call electromotive force, whereas 
Faraday in his investigations was concerned with the quantity of 


502 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


induced current. This fact emphasizes the difference in the experi- 
mental equipment of the two investigators. Henry had practically no 
measuring apparatus and had to content himself with such observa- 
tions as sparks and the shocks received when discharges were passed 
through his body; Faraday, on the other hand, had a well equipped 
laboratory. It is extremely interesting as one reads the papers by the 
two great physicists to see how they express themselves without having 
the benefit of the knowledge which came when Ohm’s law was known. 
I think of the two men Henry had perhaps a clearer understanding of 
the essential features of induced currents, but I could not give con- 
clusive proof of this. Both men were aware of the fact that there was 
one quality of the current which depended upon the rate at which the 
magnetic field is changed, this being what determines the shock in the 
muscles and the distance at which a spark will occur in a broken circuit, 
and that there was another property of the current depending upon the 
total change in the field, which determined the fling of the galvanom- 
eter needle. ‘The former was independent of the material of the con- 
ductor, while the latter varied with it. It was not, however, until the 
work of Lenz and of Neumann that all the difficulties were removed 
and all the phenomena expressed in one simple equation. 

One interesting experiment of Henry’s in this connection was to show 
that although there were differences in the shock produced in the sec- 
ondary coil when the current was made or broken in the primary, 
there was no difference at all in the fling of the galvanometer needle. 
This observation led him to a very careful study of the phenomena 
associated with making and breaking a circuit. 

The discrepancies between the observations of Henry and of Fara- 
day, dependent upon the fact that the former was observing as a rule 
electromotive force while the latter was measuring the quantity of 
current, reminds one very much of the discrepancies which existed 
in the early history of mechanics, discrepancies which were only cleared 
up by the mathematical work of D’Alembert. Mechanics had its 
origin, as is known to you all, in the work of Galileo, Newton and Huy- 
ghens, and in the century that followed their first publications a con- 
troversy as to the proper measure of those agencies in nature which 
produce the changes in velocity of a body. One school of writers in- 
sisted that the proper measure of the effect of such agencies was to be 
found in the difference in the squares of the velocities of the body at the 
beginning and the end of the action. Another school insisted equally 


pec, 19; 1931 COOKE: COASTAL TERRACES 903 


vehemently that the effect should be measured by the difference in the 
velocity. If this dispute were stated in modern language it would be 
somewhat as follows: Is the effect to be measured by the change in the 
kinetic energy or by the change in the momentum? It was D’Alembert 
who first showed that neither one of them was the proper measure, 
because the change in the kinetic energy is equal to the product of the 
force by the distance through which the body moves under the action of 
the force, while the change in the momentum is equal to the product 
of the force by the time during which the body is under the action of 
the force. Or, it may be said, if one wishes to, that both schools were 
right and that they were looking at the two sides of the shield as in the 
ancient fable. Something of the same kind may be said in regard to 
work of Henry and Faraday. ‘Their research work was absolutely 
trustworthy, but their interpretation of this could not be completely 
satisfactory until the work of Ohm was appreciated and until the 
mathematicians had completed their study. 

I can add but little to what is well known concerning Henry’s qual- 
ities aS an investigator and administrator. As one reads the various 
papers contributed to the memorial volume devoted to his life, one is 
struck by the universal admiration for his broad philosophy, his accu- 
racy of observation, his brilliant intuitions and his devotion to the cause 
of science in its widest interpretation. He was unselfish to a marked 
degree. He was not interested the faintest in personal advancement or 
in advancing claims for discoveries or inventions. His sole purposes in 
life were to interpret nature and to diffuse knowledge among men. 
Beyond any doubt he is the outstanding figure in the history of the 
scientific life of America. 


GEOLOGY.—Seven coastal terraces in the southeastern States... C. 
WyTHE CookE, U.S. Geological Survey. 


In two recent papers? I called attention to the horizontality of the 
shore lines that bound the marine Pleistocene terraces of the eastern 
and southeastern United States and interpreted it as due to the stabil- 


1 Received November 17, 1931. Published by permission of the Acting Director of 
the U.S. Geological Survey. | 

2C. WrytHEr Cooxr. Pleistocene seashores. This JouRNAL 20: 389-395. 1930. 
Correlation of coastal terraces. Jour. Geol. 38: 577-589. 1930. 


504 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


ity of the land on which a fluctuating sea had cut its marks at various 
levels. The fluctuations of sea level were attributed primarily to the 
varying quantities of water contained in the waxing and waning con- 
tinental ice caps, sea level having been low during times of greater glaci- 
ation and high when there was less ice. Under this hypothesis, the 
shore line of each coastal terrace was formed during an interglacial 
stage. 

I also pointed out the obvious facts that fluctuations of sea level 
are not local but are world-wide and that contemporaneous beaches 
stand at nearly the same level on all lands that have not moved since 
the sea lay upon them but that the beaches may vary somewhat in 
altitude because of local differences of tidal range. As many lands 
have presumably remained rigid and undisturbed throughout Quater- 
nary time, it may be possible to detect abandoned beaches along their 
margins at the same altitudes as those along the southeastern part of 
the United States. When they are found a ready means will be 
at hand to establish exact correlations between the interglacial Pleisto- 
cene deposits of the eastern United States and those of other conti- 
nents. Anthropologists and archeologists may be able to date the 
stages in the evolution of man and his cultures in terms of an inter- 
continental chronology, and glacialists may eventually tie in the com- 
plex history of the advances and retreats of the ice sheets of North 
America with those of other lands. 

In the papers cited I recognized only six Pleistocene shore lines at 
altitudes about 25, 65, 95, 160, 215, and 265 feet above the present sea 
level, but mentioned the possibility that there might be more than the 
six enumerated. ‘The altitudes assigned to these shore lines were in- 
tended to indicate the approximate position of mean sea level when 
each terrace was formed, and were therefore purposely made a little 
lower than the highest water marks of the time, which presumably 
were produced by high tides and storms. In the present paper atten- 
tion is called to a seventh shore line which was overlooked in earlier 
work, the altitudes of the beaches are revised (the average former high- 
water mark rather than former mean sea level being chosen although 
the datum of reference is present mean sea level), the distribution of 
each terrace in the southeastern States is sketched, and reeommenda- 
tions are made as to what name should be applied to each terrace. 
The altitudes of the seven shore lines now recognized and the preferred 
names of the terraces corresponding to them are as follows: 


pec. 19, 1931 COOKE: COASTAL TERRACES 505 


270 feet (82 meters), Brandywine terrace. 
215 feet (66 meters), Coharie terrace. 
170 feet (52 meters), Sunderland terrace. 
100 feet (30 meters), Wicomico terrace. 
70 feet (21 meters), Penholoway terrace. 
42 feet (13 meters), Talbot terrace. 
25 feet (8 meters), Pamlico terrace. 


It should not be forgotten that points on a terrace are ordinarily lower 
than the corresponding shore line and may be almost as low as the next 
lower shore line. Thus, the Sunderland terrace Gf no intermediate 
terraces have been overlooked) may range in altitude from 170 feet 
above sea level at its former shore line to 100 feet above sea level at its 
outer edge. 

All of the terraces above listed are, in my opinion, recognizable in 
the eastern United States at least as far north as Maryland and are 
interpreted by me to indicate marine or estuarine shore lines through- 
out their extent. According to another interpretation recently 
published* marine terraces in the Potomac basin are recognized only 
below 100 feet elevation and all deposits above that level are considered 
to belong to an alluvial fan laid down on land by the Potomac River. 

The Brandywine terrace.—The type locality of the Brandywine ter- 
race may be considered to be the same as that of the Brandywine forma- 
tion, about which there can be no question. Clark‘ wrote as follows: 
“The name Brandywine is proposed for this formation as the deposits 
are extensively and typically developed in the vicinity of Brandywine, 


Prince Georges County, Maryland... . Brandywine... . islocated 
on the slightly-eroded surface of the old Brandywine terrace not far 
from the center of the largest tract still preserved intact. . . . . The 


formation attains its maximum thickness in the general area in which 
Brandywine is situated. No section of the formation is exposed at 
Brandywine since it is situated on the uneroded surface of the forma- 
tion, but the adjacent ravines both to the east and west cut through 
the formation, exhibiting the gravels, sands, and loams characteristic 
of the formation.”’ 


3M. R. Camppetnu. Alluvial fan of Potomac River. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 42: 182. 
1931. 

4W. B. CuarKx. The Brandywine formation of the Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain. 
Am. Jour. Sci. (4th. ser.) 40: 499, 505. 1915. 


506 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


As Clark included in the Brandywine formation some deposits that 
are now known to be older and others that are younger than those at 
Brandywine, the formation should be restricted so as to include only 
those gravels, sands and loams that were laid down in the Brandywine 
sea and in the contemporaneous estuaries and rivers. As the shore of 
the sea and estuaries during Brandywine time appears to stand about 
270 feet above the present sea level, that altitude may be assumed 
to represent the upper limit of the Brandywine formation and the 270- 
foot contour line may be assumed to mark approximately the land- 
ward margin of the Brandywine terrace except where the land has been 
cut back by later erosion. If, however, a shore line between 233 feet 
(the altitude of Brandywine) and 270 feet should be discovered, the for- 
mation and terrace would need to be further restricted. 

Several remnants of the Brandywine terrace in Virginia are shown on 
the map of Washington (D. C.) and vicinity, notably the ridge between 
Baileys Crossroads and Theological Seminary and along the Fairfax 
Road south of Back Lick Run. Part of the so-called “Lafayette’’ 
terrace of North Carolina represents the Brandywine. In the mapped 
parts of South Carolina and Georgia the Brandywine terrace is con- 
siderably dissected, but farther south in Georgia it is represented by 
large flat areas. ‘The name “Hazlehurst’’ which I applied to it in 1925 
should be discarded in favor of Brandywine, which has priority. 

The Brandywine terrace does not appear on any published topo- 
graphic maps of Florida because the areas mapped are too low, but it 
probably fringes the highlands of western Florida and of Dade County 
which rise above 270 feet. | 

The Coharie terrace.—The typical Coharie terrace® is crossed by 
Great Coharie Creek in Sampson County, North Carolina, and is 
shown on the Coharie quadrangle. The prevailing altitude of the 
plain in this region is between 180 and 190 feet, although it rises to 210 
feet above sea level in the northwestern corner of the quadrangle. 
The shore of the Coharie sea does not cross the Coharie quadrangle, but 
is faintly shown in the western part of the Four Oaks quadrangle, 
which adjoins it on the north, where there is a rise from 215 feet to 
230 feet within a quarter of a mile. The shore is more plainly visible 
on the Orangeburg (South Carolina) quadrangle, where a scarp rises 
from about 215 feet to 270 feet in half a mile. Although these slopes 


5L. W. SrepHenson. North Carolina Geol. Survey 3: 273. 1912. The Coharie 
terrace, as mapped by Stephenson, included a large part of the Brandywine. 


DEc. 19, 1931 COOKE: COASTAL TERRACES 507 


would appear insignificant in a hilly country, they are much steeper 
than the normal slope of the undissected terrace plain. 

The ‘‘Claxton” terrace of Georgia, as shown on the Claxton quad- 
rangle, stands at the same altitude as the typical Coharie, and is evi- 
dently the same terrace. ‘The name Coharie has many years’ priority. 
Part of a large outlier of Coharie terrace (an island in the Sunderland 
sea) is shown on the Arredondo quadrangle north and northwest of 
Gainesville, Fla. In Virginia, the Coharie terrace is considerably dis- 
sected, but many flat patches of it remain, such as that 2 miles east of 
Fredericksburg (Stafford quadrangle and map of Fredericksburg and 
vicinity) and at Arlington (map of Washington and vicinity). In the 
District of Columbia, the Coharie terrace (estuarine facies) is well 
developed at Meridian Hill Park and in the Mount Pleasant section of 
Washington. In Maryland, the uplands in the southern part of the 
Brandywine quadrangle are part of the Coharie terrace. 

The Sunderland terrace—The name of the Sunderland terrace is 
derived from the hamlet of Sunderland, Calvert County, Maryland 
(Prince Frederick quadrangle). This place is not very suitable for a 
type locality, for it appears to lie between two outliers of the Coharie 
terrace, but the Sunderland terrace is further defined by Shattuck® as 
being limited by an ancient sea cliff at Charlotte Hall (Wicomico 
quadrangle), the foot of which he said is 170 feet above sea level. This 
definition is quite satisfactory. However, in later work’ Shattuck in- 
cluded in the Sunderland much that falls within the Coharie and 
other terraces as now defined, with the result that the surface and the 
shore line of the composite Sunderland terrace appeared to be warped. 
The name Sunderland should be restricted to the terrace that is 
- bounded by the shore line at or near 170 feet above sea level. 

The shore of the Sunderland sea appears to have lain against or 
near the crystalline rocks of the Piedmont from Wilmington, Del., 
to Baltimore; thence it trended southward to the vicinity of Mechanics- 
ville, St. Marys County, Md., lying several miles west of Patuxent 
River south of Bowie. There was a wide embayment up the Potomac 
Valley to Washington. In Virginia, the shore gradually approached 
the Piedmont, which it reached near Richmond and followed to the 
North Carolina line. The shore can be traced across the Kenly (North 
Carolina) quadrangle at an altitude apparently a little above 170 feet, 


6G. B.Ssattuck. Am. Geol. 28: 102-103. 1901. 
7 Maryland Geol. Survey. Pliocene and Pleistocene. 1906. 


508 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


although the large contour interval and the lack of detail in the map do 
not permit one to locate it very accurately. In the mapped part of 
South Carolina, the shore is rather faint, but it can be traced at an 
altitude between 170 and 175 feet above sea level from the south fork of 
Edisto River near Bamberg past Allendale to the former estuary of 
Savannah River (Bamberg, Olar, Allendale, and Peeples quadrangles). 
In Georgia, the Sunderland terrace has been called the ““Okefenokee”’ 
plain or terrace, but the name Sunderland has priority. 

The Wicomico terrace.—Wicomico River in St. Marys and Charles 
counties, Maryland, suggested the name of the Wicomico terrace. 
According to Shattuck’ in southern Maryland the base lies about 40 or 
50 feet, and the top, where it borders its ancient sea cliff, about 90 feet 
above sea level. ‘The only area within these limits in the neighborhood 
of Wicomico River shown on the much-generalized map of the Wicom- 
ico quadrangle is about 1 square mile southwest of Cooksey that lies 
between the 80 and the 100-foot contour lines. This area may be 
regarded as the type locality of the Wicomico terrace. 

Ninety feet appears to be somewhat lower than the Wicomico shore 
line. Even 95 feet, which I assigned to the Wicomico in a recent paper, 
is a little too low. One hundred feet (80 meters) above sea level is 
generally considered as the upper limit of the Wicomico, and that alti- 
tude appears to be about right. 

In Maryland, the Wicomico terrace is best developed on the Eastern 
Shore, where it forms the crest of the divide in Kent and Queen Anne 
counties, but strips of it are found along most of the estuaries west of 
Chesapeake Bay. The Capitol at Washington is built on it and Capi- 
tol Hill was mentioned by Shattuck as an example of the terrace. In 
Virginia, the Wicomico seashore followed the Surry scarp,° the foot of 
which lies about 100 feet about sea level (Surry and Ivor quadrangles), 
but estuarine reentrants of the terrace extend to the Fall Line along 
some of the streams. In North Carolina, part of the shore line is 
shown on the Falkland quadrangle south of Fieldsboro at an altitude 
of about 100 feet. Itshows on the Manning and Pineland quadrangles 
(South Carolina) at the same level. On the Glennville (Georgia) 
quadrangle, the Wicomico shore can be traced along or near the 100- 
foot contour line southward for two-thirds the length of the map and 


8G. B.Ssatrtruck. Am. Geol. 28: 103. 1901. 
9C. K. WentwortH. Sand and gravel resources of the Coastal Plain of Virginia. 
Virginia Geol. Survey Bull. 32: 55. 1930. 


7 pees td 1931 COOKE: COASTAL TERRACES 509 


westward up the former seven-mile-wide estuary of the Altamaha 
River. In Florida, the Wicomico terrace, called ‘“Newberry” by Mat- 
son, covers much of the Cambon quadrangle. Its shore lay along Trail 
Ridge on the adjoining Macclenny quadrangle and on the Lawtey 
quadrangle. Here, too, the altitude of the shore line is very close to 
100 feet above sea level. 

The Penholoway terrace-—The type locality of the Penholoway ter- 
race is shown on the Hortense (Georgia) quadrangle.” ‘This area lay 
back of a low barrier island on which Browntown and Winslow (Everett 
City quadrangle) stand and apparently was partly covered by tidal 
marshes, to judge from the pattern of the present drainage. High 
tides reached 70 feet above present sea level or possibly a foot or two 
higher. Seventy feet (21 meters) may be taken as the altitude of the 
shore of the Penholoway sea. 

In Florida, a terrace standing within the limits of altitude of the 
Penholoway and probably equivalent to it has been called by Matson 
the “Tsala Apopka” terrace. but its type locality shows so much evi- 
dence of underground solution that the position of its shore line is 
problematical. ‘The name Penholoway is therefore preferred although 
Tsala Apopka has priority. 

The shore of the Penholoway sea can be easily traced at an altitude 
of about 70 feet across the Walterboro (South Carolina) quadrangle. 
Summerville and Pinopolis are built on a long spit or island that sepa- 
rated the Penholoway sea from the mainland. Ridgeville stands on 
a barlike island at the mouth of the bay back of it (Summerville and 
Ridgeville quadrangles). The seashore of the Penholoway terrace 
forms the southern part of the Kinston (North Carolina) quadrangle. 
In Virginia most of the seaward-facing part of the Penholoway terrace 
has been destroyed, but there are a few areas (notably south of York- 
town) which lie within its altitudes. Several remnants of the estuarine 
part of the Penholoway terrace border Potomac River in Arlington 
County, Virginia. College Park, Md., (map of Washington and 
vicinity) is built near the head of a Penholoway estuary. A ridge of 
clay that rises to an altitude of about 70 feet above sea level near the 
Mount Vernon Memorial Highway near Fort Hunt, Va., (Indian Head 
quadrangle) is interpreted as having been deposited during Penholoway 


10C, WytHE Cooks. Physical geography of Georgia. Georgia Geol. Survey Bull. 
42: 24. 1925. 


010 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


time by the Potomac estuary across the entrace to an old drowned me- 
ander curve cut by the Potomac River at some stage of Pliocene time." 

The Talbot terrace——According to the original definition by Shat- 
tuck,” the 45-foot contour line marks the shore of the Talbot sea. As 
the actual shore line seems to be three or four feet lower than this, the 
altitude adopted in this paper is 42 feet, or 13 meters. The name is 
taken from Talbot County, Maryland. Shattuck included in the 
Talbot not only the Talbot terrace as here restricted, but everything 
between its shore and the Recent terrace that is now forming. Steph- 
enson, in describing the Pleistocene deposits of North Carolina, divided 
the composite Talbot terrace into two parts, an upper ‘‘Chowan”’ 
terrace, which has the same shore line® as the typical Talbot, and a 
lower Pamlico terrace. It seems preferable to retain the name Talbot 
for the upper terrace and to discard the newer name “Chowan.” 

In Delaware and Maryland the ocean extended inland 12 or 15 miles 
beyond the present seashore during Talbot time. A low seaward- 
facing scarp above the 40-foot contour line on the Pittsville quadrangle 
shows its former margin. Elsewhere in Maryland, including Talbot 
County, the Talbot terrace was covered by Chesapeake Bay and its 
tributary estuaries. In Virginia, most of the seaward-facing part of the 
Talbot terrace has been destroyed, but the terrace is developed along 
many of the estuaries. The foot of an unusually fresh-looking east- 
ward-trending scarp facing the James in the southeastern part of the 
Toano quadrangle a quarter of a mile north of B. M. 22 stands 41 feet 
above sea level. ‘The sharpness of this scarp may have been accen- 
tuated by artificial grading. | | 

In the mapped parts of South Carolina little of the original shore of 
the Talbot sea remains, although there were many islands of Talbot 
terrace in the succeeding Pamlico sea. In the Physical geography of 
Georgia, I pointed out*4 what is probably a remnant of the Talbot terrace 
between Hinesville and Canoochee River (Hinesville quadrangle) but 
interpreted it as a bench cut while the sea stood at a higher level. 


11 Wentworth (op. cit., page 77) interprets this oxbow as having been cut off and 
partly silted up in late Talbot time. 

2G. B.SHartuck. Am. Geol. 28: 104. 1901. 

13 Stephenson did not define the ‘‘Chowan’’ terrace by reference to a shore line 
although he states (op. cit., page 283) that ‘‘the surface of the [Chowan] formation 
forms a plain which slopes up from elevations of about 25 to 40 feet above sea level along 
its eastern margin to elevations of about 50 feet along the foot of the escarpment separat- 
ing it from the Wicomico plain above.’’ 

14 Georgia Geol. Survey Bull. 42: 32. 1925. 


DEc. 19, 1931 COOKE: COASTAL TERRACES 511 


The Talbot shore line is better shown along the East Coast of Flor- 
ida, where it follows the 40-foot contour line from the forks of Black 
Creek on the Middleburg quadrangle southeastwardly across the south- 
western corner of the Orange Park quadrangle. It is even more con- 
spicuous on the Interlachen quadrangle, at the same altitude. Lever- 
ett has traced this shore line down the eastern side of the Peninsula at 
an altitude of about 40 feet and referred it to the ‘‘Pensacola”’ terrace. 

The Pamlico terrace—The name Pamlico is derived from Pamlico 
Sound in eastern North Carolina, away from whose shores the Pamlico 
terrace extends as broad, nearly level stretches of lowland. The plain 
is also present on both sides of Pamlico River and covers the greater 
part of Pamlico County. According to Stephenson, the terrace 
nowhere in North Carolina is higher than 25 feet above sea level. The 
Pamlico terrace may therefore be defined as the terrace having a shore 
line approximately 25 feet above sea level. 

In Maryland the Pamlico seashore lay near the present Atlantic 
coast. ‘Traces of it can be seen on the Snow Hill quadrangle. The 
estuarine facies of the terrace borders Chesapeake Bay from a few miles 
below Havre de Grace to Baltimore and covers a broad expanse on the 
Eastern Shore below Chestertown. 

From the North Carolina line almost to Charleston, 8. C., the shore 
of the Pamlico sea appears to have been cuspate and almost continuous, 
but from Charleston to Savannah there were many irregular islands 
like the Sea Islands of today. 

In Georgia the Pamlico shore consists of two broad cusps broken by 
several bays and inlets. Almost everywhere in the area covered by 
topographic maps it is marked by a moderately high scarp, the foot of 
which lies about 25 feet above sea level. The terrace was excellently 
described by Otto Veatch” under the name “‘Satilla coastal lowland or 
Satilla plain’’ in a book which bears a date of publication a year earlier 
than that of Stephenson’s description of the Pamlico although the letter 
of transmittal of the North Carolina report is dated four months earlier 
than that of the Georgia report. The name Pamlico is preferred 
because it has gained wider acceptance than “‘Satilla.”’ 

In eastern Florida the Pamlico terrace is backed by a scarp whose 


15 FRANK LEVERETT. The Pensacola terrace and associated beaches and bars in Florida. 
Florida Geol. Survey Bull.7: 9-17. 1931. 

167,,W. STEPHENSON. North Carolina Geol. Survey 3: 286. 1912. 

17 Orro VEatcH. Georgia Geol. Survey Bull. 26: 36-38. 1911. 


512 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


base lies below the 30-foot and above the 20-foot contour lines on the 
Boulogne, Hilliard, Cambon, Orange Park and Palatka quadrangles. 
In western Florida it stands at the same altitude on the War Depart- 
ment’s fire-control map of Pensacola. Leverett!® places the height of 
the ‘‘Pensacola”’ sea at Pensacola about 25 feet above present sea level. 

Matson” described the “‘Pensacola terrace” as ‘‘a broad plain, rising 
less than 40 feet above sea level, and apparently including two divisions, 
one being less than 20 feet above, and the other from 20 to 40 feet 
above sea level.’?’ The lower of these two divisions is the Pamlico 
terrace; the upper is the Talbot. Frank Leverett, in searching for 
evidence of deformation of the “‘Pensacola’’ shore line, overlooked 
the shore line of the lower of these two divisions in the east and the 
shore line of the upper of the two in the west. Therefore, in correlat- 
ing the 40-foot (Talbot) shore in eastern Florida with the 25-foot (Pam- 
lico) shore at Pensacola, he finds a gentle slope toward the west which 
he ascribes to tilt due to the increasing weight of the delta of Mississippi 
River. As further indication of this downwarp he says: ‘‘In the vicin- 
ity of Baton Rouge, on the east side of the Mississippi, the base of a 
scarp is down to about 15 feet.’? The foot of the scarp to which he 
referred, which is the one adjacent to Bayou Fountain on the Baton 
Rouge, La., quadrangle, slopes southeastward from about 30 feet at 
Baton Rouge to an altitude below 10 feet at the edge of the quadrangle, 
and apparently closely approaches sea level in the unmapped area 
farther east. It seems to have been the Recent shore of the Gulf be- 
fore the Mississippi Delta was built up in front of it. The slope is that 
of the surface of the delta and is not due to tilting. Another scarp 
near Baton Rouge, shown by the closeness of the 40- and 50-foot con- 
tour lines, may mark either the Pamlico or the Talbot shores, or possi- 
bly both, for the Mississippi River is able to deposit sediment upon 
both the Pamlico and the Talbot terraces (raising them above their 
natural level) because high water at Baton Rouge, according to the 
map, is 41 feet above sea level. 

No topographic maps showing the shores of Pamlico Sound have 
been published. The Belhaven quadrangle, however, which lies only a 
few miles north of Pamlico River, includes a large area of Pamlico 


18 FRANK LEVERETT. Florida Geol. Survey Bull. 7: 24. 1931. 

19G.C. Matson. Geology and ground waters of Florida. U.S. Geol. Survey Water- 
Supply Paper 319: 34. 1913. 

20 FRANK LEVERETT. Op. cit., pp. 26-29. 


pHe. 1D 19351 DRECHSLER: CROWN-ROT OF HOLLYHOCKS 513 


terrace and shows a short stretch of its shore line in the northwestern 
corner at an altitude of very nearly 25 feet. The Pamlico shore line 
can be easily traced across the Edenton, Beckford, and Suffolk quad- 
rangles into Virginia, where it lies at the foot of the Suffolk Searp. 

Wentworth” has recently proposed to substitute for the Pamlico 
terrace of Virginia two terraces, an upper, which he calls the ‘Dismal 
Swamp” terrace, and a lower or ‘‘Princess Anne”’ terrace. If a marine 
terrace be defined by reference to the shore line of the tidal waters in 
which it was formed, it can not be divided, for a terrace can have only 
one shore line, although its supposed width may be restricted by the 
discovery of another shore line within the areal limits that had been 
assigned to it. As the ‘Dismal Swamp”’ terrace has identically the 
same shore line as the Pamlico,” the name Pamlico, which has many 
years priority, should be retained. The ‘‘Princess Anne”’ terrace was 
separated from the ‘“‘Dismal Swamp” because of the presence of a low 
scarp above 12 feet in the neighborhood of Norfolk and elsewhere in 
Virginia. Although no one can dispute the existence of this scarp, for 
it is plainly shown on the Cape Henry quadrangle, opinions may differ 
as to whether it is really a sea cliff formed at a stage of the sea about 12 
feet above the present sea level. The evidence at present appears to 
be inconclusive. 


BOTANY .—A crown-rot of hollyhocks caused by Phytophthora mega- 
sperma n. sp... CHARLES DRECHSLER, U.S. Department of 
Agriculture. 


On May 15, 1931, a specimen of diseased hollyhock, Althaea rosea 
Cav., from a garden in the District of Columbia and reported to be 
illustrative of a trouble that had led to the loss of other plants in the 
same plot, was submitted to the writer for examination. Additional 
specimens were received during the ensuing two weeks. Early in 
June, perhaps because of the advent of drier weather conditions, but 
more probably because all the diseased plants had by that time suc- 
cumbed, the destruction came to a halt in the garden referred to, 
though on June 5 a dying specimen from a small experimental planting 


21C.K.WeEntTWorTH. Virginia Geol. Survey Bull. 32. 1930. 
22C. K. WENTWORTH. Op cit., pp. 67-69. 
1 Received November 16, 1931 


514 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


Fig. 1. A.—Hollyhock plant affected with crown-rot, as collected in Washington, 
D. C. showing decay throughout short over-wintered stem and in the discolored proxi- 
mal portions of the fleshy roots, X?. B.—Longitudinal section of hollyhock crown 
attacked by Phytophthora megasperma, showing sharp line of demarcation between 
decayed and healthy parts at bases of new shoots, X?. Photographed by Lillian A. 
Guernsey. 


DEc. 19, 1931 DRECHSLER: CROWN-ROT OF HOLLYHOCKS 515 


of hollyhocks at Arlington Experiment Farm, Rosslyn, Va., was found 
to be affected with the same disease. While definite information as to 
the distribution of the malady is not available, there is reason to be- 
lieve that it is fairly widespread, a grower in the vicinity of Racine, 
Wis., for example, stating that he had lost his entire planting of holly- 
hocks during the early part of June 1931, the destruction evidently 
having taken precisely the same course as was observed in the District 
of Columbia. 

As the seat of the malady is very largely in the underground parts 
(fig. 1, A), the trouble makes itself manifest at the beginning sometimes 
through poor growth of the new shoots, but in other instances, as no- 
tably in the specimen at Arlington Experiment Farm, a dozen robust 
shoots between 1.5 and 2.0 meters high may be produced before any 
sign of abnormality is noticeable. Ordinarily no premonitory changes 
in coloration or turgidity of leaves or stalks are apparent when one 
after another the shoots fall to the ground, where they soon wither and 
die. In the course of a few days the entire aerial growth from a well 
developed crown may be killed. The manner of destruction thus 
shows a strong similarity to that pertaining to the foot-rot of various 
species of Liliwm by the fungus generally designated as Phytophthora 
cactorum (Leb. & Cohn) Schroet., or to the foot-rot of rhubarb caused 
by P. parasitica Dast. 

When the overwintered underground parts of a dying plant are ex- 
amined, the short stem is usually found to be completely involved in a 
decay that extends downward into many if not into all of the large 
fleshy roots, often for distances of from 5 to 10 em. and sometimes for 
distances of from 15 to 20cm. Outwardly the decay is evidenced in a 
buff or sepia or darker brown discoloration, while internally the tissues, 
in addition to being more or less discolored, are softened to such a 
degree that the fibrous and woody elements are readily separated into 
longitudinal shreds. ‘The decay is found usually to extend only a very 
short distance from the overwintered stem into the new shoots, the 
line of demarcation between diseased and healthy tissues being here 
rather sharply marked by a darkly discolored marginal zone (fig. 1, B). 
Apparently the shoots obtain water for a considerable period through 
the vascular elements of the completely killed overwintered parent 
stem, and fall to the ground only when the supporting tissues are 
weakened mechanically in such measure as no longer to be capable of 
supporting the weight of the aerial structures. 


ith camera lucida, 


drawn w 


‘a megasperma, 


of Phytophthoi 


1 apparatus 


xua 


. Se 


2 


Fig 
< 1000 


516 


pec. 19, 1931 DRECHSLER: CROWN-ROT OF HOLLYHOCKS 517 


In the greater bulk of the decaying tissues of the diseased hollyhock 
plants examined was found a moderate quantity of intercellular 
mycelium, which being usually devoid of protoplasmic contents, could 
not usually be made to yield new growth. New growth and subse- 
quently pure cultures on artificial media were obtained fairly readily 
from pieces of newly invaded tissue from the margins of the diseased 
parts by employing the method set forth in an earlier paper (4), and 
with very satisfactory regularity when the washing of the infected 
material was continued until the gelatinous substance oozing in extra- 
ordinary quantity from the irrigated hollyhock tissue had been largely 
removed. 

The fungus thus obtained displays in its mycelium the vegetative 
features generally associated with species of Phytophthora. Its star- 
ing, openly branching habit and the substantial appearance of the 
granular contents of its hyphae at once indicate a member of that genus 
rather than of the related genus Pythiwm. As in many other species 
of Phytophthora and, indeed, in various species of Pythium, septa 
make their appearance in the originally continuous hyphae with the 
withdrawal of the granular contents. In completely evacuated mycel- 
ium the rather thick cross-walls are present usually in considerable 
number. 

A high degree of distinctiveness attaches, however, to the sexual ap- 
aratus, which is produced promptly and abundantly on nearly all sub- 
strata ordinarily employed (figs. 2-4). Aside from its ready produc- 
tion, the sexual apparatus is distinguished by the unusually large 
dimensions of oogonium and oospore. ‘Thus 200 oogonia produced on 
maize-meal agar plates and chosen at random 10 to 15 days after 
planting, yielded measurements of diameters distributed according 
to values expressed to the nearest micron as follows: 33,y, 1; 34y, 1; 
37 u, 1; 39u, 2; 40n, 8; 41y, 5; 43yu, 6; 44u, 7; 45u, 19; 46u, 24; 47 n, 28; 
ASn, 19; 49n, 27; 50p, 24; 51 p,-17; 52y, 8; 3p, 3; 54 yp, 2; 56 yu; 2; 57 nu, 1. 
Measurements of the diameters of the 200 oospores contained within 
these oogonia yielded values distributed as follows: 26 u, 1; 28u,1;30u, 1; 
OZ, | 33H, 2: 34, Oo} 36u, oF OC L, 6; 38 uy, 2; 39 u, Ls AOQu, oar Alp, 26; 
A2Qu, 26; 438 u, 30; 44, 22; 45y, 18; 46u, 8;47u,5;49n, 1; 52u,1. These 
values from which averages for diameter of oogonium and diameter of 
oospore of 47.4u and 41.4u respectively were computed, may presum- 
ably be regarded as fairly representative of the species, having been 
obtained from material in which the bodies in question were present 


/2P 4a/SYIaIT 


518 


pec. 19, 1931 DRECHSLER: CROWN-ROT OF HOLLYHOCKS 519 


in large number and showed practically no tendency toward degenera- 
tion. The oospores in substantially all cases showed the structure 
normal for the stage of maturity in which they were found. Natur- 
ally more extreme values not included in the ranges found in the course 
of the random selections came under observation. ‘Thus in the sex 
apparatus shown in Figure 4, E, among the smallest seen in an irri- 
gated lima-bean agar preparation, in which somewhat smaller dimen- 
sions are wont to prevail then in dry maize-meal agar plate cultures, 
the oogonium measures only 16 in diameter, while the oospore meas- 
ures only 11; and again the very largest oogonium seen in any maize- 
meal agar culture was found to measure 61 u in diameter, and contained 
an oospore 54, in diameter. 

The pertinent literature contains few records of oogonia and oospores 
equalling or closely approaching in size those of the hollyhock parasite. 
In a recently published comparative study of the genus Phytophthora, 
Tucker (9) states that the oogonia and oospores of P. erythroseptica 
Pethyb. with average diameters of 36.3 and 31.4u respectively, and 
hence fully 10u smaller in these dimensions than the hollyhock fungus, 
exceed in size those of any congeneric form, and held this superiority 
in size to be diagnostic for that species. In this connection it must be 
mentioned that Tucker reports that on transferring sterile mycelium 
of P. erythroseptica to Petri’s mineral solution he found after one week 
a few large oogonia measuring 30.1 to 64.34 (average 45.1) in diam- 
eter. As, however, oospores were not observed in these oogonia 
there were, indeed, excellent grounds for not regarding the large struc- 
tures as representative of the species. Somewhat similarly disturbing 
considerations pertain to Petri’s report (7) of the production of oogonia 
varying in diameter from 57 to 62u and oospores ‘‘non ancora ben 
differenziate’’ measuring between 50 and 56yu by P. cambivora (Petri) 
Buism. grown on earrot-agar acidulated with malic acid, when pre- 
viously (6) oospores of the chestnut parasite in the tissues of the dis- 
eased host had been found to measure only 20 to 27y. Ashby (2) more 
recently reported the discovery of several oogonia and oospores in a 
pure culture of P. cambivora, which with respect to size more nearly 
approximated those of the hollyhock parasite. It is to be noted that 
whereas the antheridia of both P. erythrospetica and P. cambivora 
developing in pure culture have always been found to be of the amphi- 
gynous type, those of the hollyhock fungus are predominantly 
paragynous. 


520 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


A really close approximation to the hollyhock parasite in size of 
oogonium and oospore is to be inferred from Alcock’s summary (1) of 
the morphological features of the fungus held by her to be responsible 
for the ‘Lanarkshire strawberry disease’’ prevalent of late years in 
Scotland and England: “‘Oogonia average about 46u to 47, in diam- 
eter; oospores average about 33, to 47u diameter; oospore wall about 
4u thick; sporangia about 50 by 30u.’’ Antheridia of the amphigy- 
nous type were stated to have been made out in the cells of the host ina 
few instances, failure to obtain the fungus in pure culture having pre- 
cluded more complete observations of the sexual apparatus. Accord- 
ing to a later note (8) of somewhat indefinite authorship, presumably 
the same parasite is “characterized by a large sporangium, by oospores 
of the two types and as far as has been ascertained is similar to Phythoph- 
thora cinnamomt.”’ It is not certain whether the latter quotation is to 
be interpreted as implying that the strawberry parasite produces large 
globose resting bodies of the type described by Rands (8) for his P. 
cinnamomz; but assuredly no bodies of such type have ever been seen in 
cultures of the fungus isolated from diseased hollyhocks. ; 

As has been mentioned the antheridia of the hollyhock fungus are 
predominantly paragynous. In plate cultures of maize-meal agar 
approximately 99 out of every hundred sexual units exhibit a paragy- 
nous relationship of the male organ (figs. 2, A-F; 3, A-D; 4, A-C), the 
amphigynous relationship occurring only rather rarely. On irrigated 
lima-bean agar preparations useful in the study of asexual reproduction 
the proportion of amphigynous antheridia (fig. 4, D-F) is much larger, 
varying often between 25 and 35 in every hundred. ‘The fungus is very 
obviously homothallic, for in many instances when it is neither too 
remote nor leads into one of the knotted hyphal tangles present here 
and there, the mycelial connection between antheridium and oogonium 
may be readily traced. In some eases (figs. 2, D; 4, C) the combined - 
lengths of antheridial branch, oogonial stalk and intervening portion 
of hypha is not in excess of 40u. The usual somewhat irregularly 
orbicular or broadly elliptical shape of the antheridium is sometimes 
modified by the presence of a distal protuberance or lobe (figs. 2, B, C, 
D; 4, B) by which contact with the oogonium is established. 

In its asexual reproduction the hollyhock parasite is rather similar 
to Phytophthora cryptogea Pethyb. & Laff., P. connamomi and P. cambi- 
vora. Thesporangium is as arule ovoid (fig. 5, A-F) but frequently the 
development of a distal lobe or protuberance (fig. 5, K, L, N, O) brings 


4 


foie 


~~ 
8 
\ 
; 
Q 


Cc. 


ida, 


th camera luc 


Fig. 4. Sexual apparatus of Phytophthora megasperma drawn wi 


1000. 


1 


52 


522 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


about a modification in its outward form suggesting the distal modi- 
fications sometimes present on antheridia. A papilla of dehiscence 
protruding beyond the apical contour is not produced, although quite 
obviously the wall at the apex of the sporangium becomes trans- 
formed into a noticeably thickened refringent cap through the yielding 
of which discharge is effected. Dehiscence is accompanied by a 
perceptible shrinkage of the sporangial envelope, as may be seen by a 
comparison of Figure 4, F with Figure 4, E, the contraction apparently 
being only in part accounted for by the relaxed contour of the empty 
membrane. The hypha supporting the sporangium is proliferous, so 
that a second or a third sporangium may be borne on the same axis, 
either within the empty envelope of the primary one, or beyond the 
latter, depending on the lengths of the intervening increments of 
growth of the sporangiphore (fig. 5, G-M). 

The sporangia obtained in irrigated preparations are too variable for 
profitable statistical metric treatment. Those formed earliest in a fresh 
preparation measure usually from 35 to 60u in length by 25 to 45y in 
diameter. The larger individuals like the one shown in Figure 5, A, 
yield between 35 and 45 zoospores; slightly smaller examples like those 
shown in Figure 5, B, C, yield between 30 and 35; the medium-sized 
specimen represented in Figure 5, E, yielded 18 by accurate count; the 
small one shown in Figure 5, D, was seen to deliver 6 zoospores. As 
the preparations become older and in part exhausted, the sporangia 
decrease in size until specimens make their appearance with minimum 
dimensions; that is, with the length between 15 and 20u, and width 
between 6 and 8u. Such diminutive structures as, for example, the 


Fig. 5. Asexual reproductive structures of Phytophthora megasperma, drawn 
with camera lucida, 500. A, B, C.—Fully grown primary sporagnia. D. E.—Spor- 
angia immediately preceding dehiscence. F.—Empty envelope of sporangium shown in 
EK. G, H, I, J, K, L, M.—Sporangia and supporting hyphae showing proliferation. 
O, P.—Evacuated sporangial envelopes within which are retained empty cyst walls with 
membranous parts of papillae of dehiscence, and in P, in addition, some encysted zoo- 
spores without evidence of repetitional development. Q.—Sporangium after frustrated 
dehiscence showing one zoospore cyst wall evacuated by means of a papilla of dehiscence, 
one discharged miniature sporangium on a germ sporangiophore perforating the wall of 
the primary sporangium, and 10 zoospores in various stages of repetitional development 
by production of miniature germ sporangia. R, a-7.—Zoospores after rounding up. 
S.—Two zoospores each giving rise to a germ sporangium, a showing beginning of 
development, b showing miniature sporangium delimited by basal septum. T, a-f.— 
Zoospores, each provided with a papilla of dehiscence. U, a-h.—Evacuated cyst mem- 
branes after escape of zoospores in second swimming stage. V, a-c.—Zoospores germi- 
nating by vegetative germ tubes. W.—A zoospore in motile stage. 


Jap 4asSYIHg 9 


ion see page 522. 


For explanat 


Phytophthora megasperma. 


5. 


Fig 


523 


524 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 21 


tertiary sporangium shown in Figure 5, I, give rise to only a single 
zoospore. 

The zoospores are of the biciliate, longitudinally grooved, reniform 
type usual in the genus (fig. 5, W), which after a period of swarming 
round up (fig. 5, R, a-2). A second period of motility frequently 
ensues, this being accomplished through both of the courses of repeti- 
tional development set forth for a number of congeneric forms in an 
earlier paper (5). In most instances the encysted zoospore produces a 
wide papilla (fig. 5, T, a-f) which ultimately yields at the apex to 
liberate the full-fledged secondary swimming spore. Usually the 
cylindrical modification on the evacuated cyst wall is relatively 
short (fig. 5, U, a-d) but in some instances modifications of more consid- 
erable lengths (fig. 5, U, e-h) remain behind as evidence of exceptionally 
long papillae. This type of development prevails also among zoospores 
retained in relatively small number within sporangia (fig. 5, O, P) 
the dehiscence of which has been partially frustrated. In fewer in- 
stances a properly liberated zoospore gives rise to the second swimming 
stage by the production of a miniature sporangium on a delicate germ 
sporangiophore (fig. 5, 8, a, b). Yet in cases where the dehiscence of 
the ordinary large sporangia has been frustrated more nearly com- 
pletely, so that the imprisoned zoospores are packed rather closely 
within the containing envelopes, the escape of the protoplasts in this 
species as in congeneric forms is usually acomplished through the latter 
type of repetitional development (fig. 5, Q). 

As far as the writer is aware the literature contains no record of 
any species of Phytophthora combining oogonia and oospores having 
dimensions approaching those characteristic of the hollyhock parasite 
with predominantly paragynous antheridia, proliferous, non-papillate 
sporangia and the absence of large globose ‘‘chlamydospores.” ‘The 
fungus under consideration is therefore described as a new species for 
which a specific term descriptive of the large oospore is deemed 
appropriate. 


Phytophthora megasperma nN. sp. 


Mycelium intercellular in tissues of host; on artificial substratum of some- 
what radiating aspect, composed of freely branching hyphae from 3 to 8yu in 
diameter; continuous in actively growing stage, later, on becoming evacuated, 
developing numerous, rather thick septa; producing aerial growth in small or 
moderate quantity ; under aquatic conditions extramatrical growth meager. 


pec, 19, 1931 DRECHSLER: CROWN-ROT OF HOLLYHOCKS 525 


Sporangium regularly formed terminally on a long, simple or sparingly 
branched, extramatrical filament measuring mostly 50u to 2 mm. in length 
and 2 to 2.5u in diameter, though often expanding in the distal portion to a 
diameter of 3 to 5u; later often coming into a lateral position through con- 
tinued elongation of the supporting filament from immediately below the 
delimiting septum; regularly ovoid, but occasionally bearing distally a protu- 
berance or lobe of variable size; measuring 6 to 45y in transverse diameter by 
15 to 60u in length; on dehiscence opening broadly at apex without formation 
of an outwardly protruding papilla; after evacuation proliferous in moderate 
measure, both by formation of sessile or nearly sessile secondary or often 
tertiary sporangia within primary one and by repeated growth of the support- 
ing filament through the orifices of the empty envelope to produce additional 
sporangia externally. Zoospores produced from 1 to 45in asporangium; reni- 
form, longitudinally grooved, biciliated, after rounding up measuring 10 to 13yu 
in diameter; individually germinating by germ-tubes usually 1 to 3 in number, 
or often, whether properly liberated or retained within the sporangial envelope 
owing to frustrated dehiscence, often giving rise to a secondary zoospore,— 
the repetitional development taking place either by direct discharge of con- 
tents through an evacuation tube 3.5 to 5.5u in diameter and 1 to 10u in length, 
or by the production of an elongated miniature sporangium mostly 6 to 10u in 
diameter and 16 to 22u in length on a germ sporangiophore mostly 1.5u in 
diameter and 10 to 60z in length. 

Oogonium borne terminally on a stalk usually 5 to 15yu in length; smooth, 
subspherical, measuring 16 to 61yu, mostly 42 to 52u (average 47.4) in dia- 
meter; provided with a wall 0.5 to 1.7u (average 1.2u) in thickness. Anther- 
idium single; irregularly orbicular or prolate ellipsoidal, sometimes provided 
with a distal protuberance or lobe; measuring usually 10 to 18u in diameter 
by 14 to 20u in length; in some (1 to 35 out of 100) cases amphigynous, but 
more often paragynous, in latter event usually applied near base of oogonium 
and often in intimate contact with oogonial stalk; borne laterally or terminally 
or in intercalary relationship on a branch mostly 5 to 50u in length, the branch 
sometimes arising from a hypha not demonstrably connected with the oogonial 
hypha, but sometimes having close mycelial connection with the oogonium, 
the total length of filamentous parts between the septa delimiting the sex 
organs occasionally not exceeding 40u. Oospore colorless or more often dis- 
tinctly yellowish; smooth, subspherical, measuring 11 to 54y, mostly 37 to 
47u (average 41.4) in diameter; provided with a wall 0.8 to 4.6u (average 
3.6u) in thickness, and containing a reserve globule measuring at early matur- 
ity 6.5 to 24.0u (average 17.6u) in diameter. 

Causing a destructive decay of the stem and roots of Althaea rosea Cav. in 
Washington, D. C. and at Rosslyn, Va. 


526 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


LITERATURE CITED 


1. Alcock, N. L. A root disease of the strawberry. Gard. Chron. III, 86: 14-15. Jl. 6, 
1929. No. 2219. 

2. Ashby, S. F. The production of sexual organs in pure cultures of Phytophthora 
cinnamomi Rands and Blepharospora cambivora Petri. Trans. British Mycological 
Soc. 14: 260-262. 1929. 

3. Department of Agriculture for Scotland. Scotland: Plant disease and pests. Intern. 
Rev. Agr. 22(M): 94-95. Je. 1931. No.6. Also reprinted in Intern. Bull. Plant 
Prot. 5 (m): 94-95. Je. 1931. No. 6. 

4. Drechsler, C. The beet water mold and several related root parasites. Journ. Agr. 
Research 38: 309-361. 1929. 

5. Drechsler, C. Repetitional diplanetism in the genus Phytophthora. Journ. Agr. 
Research 40: 557-573. 1930. 

6. Petri, L. Studi sulla malattia del castagno detia ‘‘dell’ inchiostro.’’ Morfologia e 
biologia del micelio parassita. Annali del R. Instituto superiore Forestale Nationale 
Firenze. 3: 153-185. 1918. 

7. Petri, L. Osservazioni biologiche sulla ‘‘Blepharospora cambivora.’’ Annali del R. 
Instituto superiore Ageario e Forestale Firenze. Serie seconda 1: 155-161. 1925. 

8. Rands, R. D. Streepkanker van kaneel, veroorzaakt door Phytophthora cinnamomi 
n. sp. (Stripe canker of cinnamon, caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi n. sp.) 
Meded. Inst. Plantenz. Dept. Landb. Nijv. Handel 54, 53and1p.6pl. 1922. 

9. Tucker, C. M. Taxonomy of the genus Phytophthora de Bary. Missouri Agr. Exp. 
Stat. Research Bull. 153. 208 pp. with 30 figs. in text. Je. 1931. ; 


BOTANY.—The Genus Chikusichloa of Japan and China. Y. L. 
Kerne,? U. 8. National Herbarium. (Communicated by A. S. 
HITCHCOCK.) 


In 1925 Chikusichloa was described with a single species and was 
regarded as an endemic genus in Japan. This grass, however, was 
recently found in China and a second species as well. The new species 
is from the Kwangsi collection of Mr. R. C. Ching in 1928, the other 
from my Kiangsu (I-shing) collection in 1929. 


CHIKUSICHLOA Koidz. Bot. Mag. Tokyo 39: 23. 1925. A single species, 
C’. aquatica Koidz., is described from Japan. 


Spikelets perfect, 1-flowered, somewhat laterally compressed or sub- 
terete, the disarticulation a short distance below the lemma, the spikelets 
falling with a stipe attached; glumes wanting; lemma lanceolate, attenuate 
into a terminal awn or acuminate, membranaceous, strongly 5-7-nerved; palea 
a little shorter and thinner than the lemma, 2-3-nerved; styles distinct, the 
stigmas laterally exserted; stamen 1, the anther linear; lodicules 2, minute; 
grain hard, fusiform, the pericarpjadnate to the mealy seed. Aquatic peren- 


1 Received November 13, 1931. 
2 Fellowship student of the Rockefeller Foundation, from the National Central Uni- 
versity, Nanking, China. 


nec. 19, 1931 KENG: CHIKUSICHLOA 527 


nials with simple culms, narrow blades, and terminal panicles.—Species 2, one 
in Japan and Southeastern China, the other in Southwestern China. 


A. Spikelets awned, the stipe 2-4 mm. long, usually longer than the branchlet 


ines VeRVVgm Ne ROSMAN  Pe e vo.  k ei ice ick ep eR og S soya 1. C. aquatica. 
AA. Spikelets awnless, the stipe 1-2 mm. long, equaling or shorter than the 
leanehlenbelows the jOMb.:..'0 68s gee ew Dues NALLIGG: 


This genus belongs to the tribe Oryzeae, but approaches the Ameri- 
can genus Zizaniopsis, which is differentiated from Oryzeae by the uni- 
sexual spikelets. Though the spikelets in Chikusichloa are all alike, 
those in the upper part of the panicle are usually more fruitful than 
those in the lower. Moreover, there seems to be a tendency toward re- 
duction in the size of the anthers in the spikelets of the lower part of the 
panicle, suggesting a trend toward two kinds of spikelets, one pistillate, 
the other perfect. The perfect stipitate spikelets recall those of 
Hygroryza, but in that the stamens are 6, and the plant is floating, with 
inflated sheaths, short broad blades, and small panicles. In the origi- 
nal description of Chikusichloa the stipe remaining attached to the 
lemma is considered to be the elongated lower joint of the rachilla. 
Since here, as well as in Hygroryza, the glumes are wanting, it is not 
certain whether the stipe is an elongated rachilla-joint or the summit of 
a pedicel which disarticulates some distance below the spikelet. Such 
pedicels are characteristic of Thysanolaena and Polypogon, and are 
found in some species of 7'risetwm, where the presence of glumes at the 
apex of the stipe shows conclusively that the stipe is part of the pedicel. 


CHIKUSICHLOA AQUATICA Koidz. Bot. Mag. Tokyo 39: 23. 1925 


Culms tufted, erect, 0.8-1.5 meters tall, subcompressed, 3-5 mm. thick, 
5-noded, the lower nodes remote, the upper ones approximate; sheaths loose, 
compressed-keeled, much longer than the internodes; blades 45-60 cm. long, 
8-14 mm. wide, acuminate, flat or folded, deep green, rather flaccid; panicle 
lanceolate, erect, half to one third the length of the plant, the branches slender, 
ascending, up to one third the length of the panicle; spikelets dull green, 3-5 
mm. long, terminating in a slender awn 3-6 mm. long, hispidulous along the 
nerves; stipe 2-4 mm. long, or rarely shorter, hispidulous; anther 1—-1.5 mm. 
long; grain 2—2.5 mm. long, dark or brownish.—Shady sides of mountain 
streams, Japan and Southeastern China. 

CuInA: Kiangsu, I-shing, Keng 2496. 


One Japanese specimen, collected from Satsuma by Masamune in 1925, has 


been examined. It differs in having a stipe as much as 6 mm. long, but is 
similar otherwise to that of China. 


Chikusichloa mutica Keng, sp. nov. 


Culmi caespitosi, erect, circ. 75 cm. alti, 3 mm. crassi, subcompressi, glabri; 
vaginae laxae, compresso-carinatae, internodiis longiores; ligula firma, glabra, 
3-5 mm. longa; laminae erectae, saepe conduplicatae et faleatae, 15-40 cm. 


chloa aquatica Koitz. For explanation see page 529. 


Fig.1. Chikusi 


528 


pec. 19, 1931 KENG: CHIKUSICHLOA 529 


longae, expansae 10-16 mm. latae, acuminatae, firmae, glaucae, costa media 
superne obscura, inferne prominente; panicula contracta, linearis, 20-30 cm. 
longa, ramis tenuibus, alternis, erectis vel appressis, usque 7 cm. longis; 
spiculae anguste lanceolatae, 4 mm. longae, acuminatae, muticae, lacteae, 
inter nervos validos hispidulos glabrae et interdum plicatae; stipes 1-2 mm. 
longus, hispidulus; stamen unum, anthera usque 2 mm. longa; styli distincti, 
stigmatibus multo breviores. 

Culms tufted, erect, about 75 cm. tall, 3 mm. thick, subcompressed, 
glabrous; sheaths loose, compressed-keeled, the upper ones crowded on the 
approximate nodes; ligule firm, glabrous, 3-5 mm. long; blades erect, usually 
folded and falcate, 15-40 cm. long, 10-16 mm. wide, acuminate, firm, glau- 
cous, the midrib obscure above, prominent beneath; panicle contracted, linear, 
20-30 cm. long, the branches slender, appressed, up to 7 cm. long; spikelets 
narrowly lanceolate, 4 mm. long, acuminate, awnless, rarely mucronulate, 
creamy-white, glabrous and sometimes folded between the hispidulous strong 
nerves; stipe 1-2 mm. long, hispidulous, equaling or more frequently shorter 
than the glabrous branchlet below the joint; stamen 1, the anther up to 2 mm. 
long; styles distinct, much shorter than the stigmas. 

Type in the Herbarium of the Metropolitan Museum of Natural History, 
Academia Sinica, Nanking, China, collected by the side of a stream in ravine, 
Seh Fing Dar Shan, Nanning, Kwangsi, altitude 600 meters, October 24, 1928, 
by R. C. Ching (no. 8200). Duplicate type in the U. 8. National Herbarium 
(no. 1501590). 


Fig. 2. Chikusichloa mutica Keng. A. Part of a panicle branch, X2. B. Stamen, 
pistil, and lodicules, drawn from a spikelet on the upper part of the panicle, X10. 
C. Same from a spikelet near the base of the panicle, X10. D. Spikelet and its 
stipe, X5. H-F. Lemma and palea, <5. 


Fig. 1. Chikusichloa aquatica Koidz. A. Plant, 4 natural size. B-C. Fruitful 
spikelets and stipes, X5. D. The articulation showing the branchlet persistent below 
the joint, X5. E-F. Caryopsis and its section showing the pericarp adnate to the mealy 
seed, X5. G. Young spikelet on the lower part of the panicle, with its lemma removed, 
<0: 


530 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 21 


This species is closely related to Chikusichloa aquatica, from which it differs 
chiefly in the awnless cream-white spikelets, shorter stipes, linear panicles, and 
in the glaucous firm blades. The specimens seen consist of the upper part of 
the plant, about 60 cm. long, with 4 leaves crowded above and the lower inter- 
nodes 7-11 cm. long. 


MAMMALOGY.—Six new white-footed mice (Peromyscus maniculatus 
group), from islands off the Pacific Coast.1 E. W. NELSON and 
E. A. GotpMAN, U.S. Biological Survey. 


In Revision of the mice of the American genus Peromyscus (North 
Amer. Fauna, No. 28, pp. 96-98, Apr. 17, 1909) Osgood referred speci- 
mens from the islands of San Miguel, San Nicolas, Santa Barbara, 
and Santa Rosa of the Santa Barbara group, off the coast of southern 
California, to Peromyscus maniculatus clementis which was originally 
described from San Clemente Island. Those from Santa Cruz Island 
were assigned to P. m. catalinae, of Santa Catalina Island. Specimens 
from Natividad Island and San Martin Island, off the coast of Lower - 
California, were referred (1. c., p. 100) to P. m. geronimensis, typical on 
San Geronimo Island. 

More than 20 years have passed since the fine monograph mentioned 
was published. In commenting upon material examined from the 
various islands the author pointed out in several instances characters 
which he regarded as too slight to afford a basis for satisfactory separa- 
tion. Finer distinctions are being made by many workers at the 
present time, and it seems to us probable that if the same reviser were 
reviewing this part of his work his viewpoint would be somewhat 
altered. Some of the islands are separated by 50 miles or more of open 
sea, while others lie somewhat nearer together. San Miguel and Santa 
Rosa Islands, with a comparatively narrow passage between them, ~ 
appear to be inhabited by the same form. Study of the fairly ample | 
material available has shown that although the characters presented in 
varying combinations from island to island are relatively slight they 
are maintained with rather remarkable constancy. Such characters 
are, aS in many other similar places, the expression of genetic factors 
resulting through isolation and response to environmental influences 
favoring their perpetuation. These insular forms, with ranges sharply 


1 Received November 19, 1931. 


DEc. 19, 1931 NELSON AND GOLDMAN: NEW MICE 531 


definable, are more readily and satisfactorily segregated than would be 
the case with many similarly differentiated mainland forms with ranges 
merging almost imperceptibly. We believe they should be recognized 
as interesting and tangible steps in the evolutionary process involved 
in the development of species. 

New subspecies are described as follows: 


Peromyscus maniculatus streatori subsp. nov. 
San Miguel Island Mouse 


Type—From San Miguel Island, off coast of southern California. No. 
34631/46716, “old adult, U. S. National Museum (Biological Survey collec- 
tion), collected by C. P. Streator, June 24, 1892. Original number 1861. 

Distribution —San Miguel and Santa Rosa Islands. 

General characters.—A dark subspecies, similar to Peromyscus maniculatus 
clementis of San Clemente Island, but darker and browner, less buffy; general 
size about the same but ears usually slightly smaller; skull more slender in 
structure. Closely resembling P. m. catalinae in color; general size similar, 
but tail longer; ears slightly smaller; cranial characters, especially the smaller 
braincase, distinctive. 

Color.—Type: Upper parts in general near wood brown (Ridgway, 1912) 
with a dull cinnamon suffusion on cheeks, shoulders, and along sides, the top 
of head and back moderately mixed with black; underparts in general dull 
white; a small ochraceous buffy area at base of tail; forelimbs and hind feet 
white; ears dusky, indistinctly edged with white; tail bicolor, brownish 
above, white below. 

Skull——Similar to that of P. m. clementis but of slenderer proportions, 
the rostrum narrower, more attenuate; interorbital region narrower; inter- 
parietal smaller (shorter antero-posteriorly). Compared with that of P. m. 
catalinae the skull differs notably as follows: Braincase smaller, less inflated; 
interorbital region narrower; interparietal smaller (shorter antero-posteriorly). 

Measurements —Type: Total length, 170 mm.; tail vertebrae, 80; hind foot; 
20. Average of 10 adult topotypes: 175 (160-185); 82 (77-86); 21 (21-22). 
Skull (type): Greatest length, 25.7; condylobasal length, 23.5; zygomatic 
breadth, 13.2; interorbital breadth, 4;interparietal, 9.1 X 2.1; length of nasals, 
10.5; maxillary toothrow, 3.7. 


Remarks.—P. m. streatori is one of the smaller forms of P. maniculatus 
inhabiting the Santa Barbara group of islands. It is larger and darker- 
colored and scarcely requires close comparison with P. m. gambeli, of the adja- 
cent mainland. Specimens from Santa Rosa Island appear to be inseparable 
from those from San Miguel Island. 

Specimens examined.—Total number, 38, as follows: 

California: San Miguel Island (type locality), 25; Santa Rosa Island, 13. 


532 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


Peromyscus maniculatus santacruzae subsp. nov. 
Santa Cruz Island Mouse 


Type.—From Santa Cruz Island, off coast of southern California. No. 
47449, 2 old adult, U. 8. National Museum (Biological Survey collection), 
collected by C. P. Streator, July 13, 1892. Original number 1923. 

Distribution.— Known only from Santa Cruz Island. | 

General characters.—A large dark subspecies, closely allied to its geographic 
neighbor Peromyscus maniculatus streatori, of San Miguel Island, but usually 
decidedly larger with very noticeably longer tail; color about the same. 
Similar to P. m. catalinae, of Santa Catalina Island, but tail longer, ears 
usually smaller, and cranial details distinctive. Differing from P.m. clementis 
as follows: General size larger, tail decidedly longer; color somewhat duller, 
more brownish, less suffused with buff; buffy lateral line less distinct. 

Color.—Type: Upper parts near wood brown, suffused with cinnamon buff 
on cheeks, shoulders, flanks, and outer surfaces of limbs, the top of head and 
back moderately overlaid with brownish black; under parts dull white; ears 
dusky, indistinctly edged with white; tail bicolor, brownish above, whitish 
below. 

Skull.—Closely resembling that of P. m. streatori, but larger and heavier; 
interparietal small as in streatorz. Similar to that of P. m. catalinae, but 
braincase somewhat smaller, less fully inflated; interorbital region usually 
narrower; interparietal smaller (shorter antero-posteriorly). Compared with 
that of P. m. clementis the skull is similar in general form, but larger; inter- ~ 
parietal smaller (shorter antero-posteriorly). 

Measurements.— Type: Total length, 207; tail vertebrae, 99; hind foot, 22. 
Average of 10 adult topotypes: 194 (184-214); 96 (88-105); 22 (21-23). 
Skull (type): Greatest length, 27.7; condylobasal length, 25.7; zygomatic 
breadth, 14.4; interorbital breadth, 4.2; interparietal, 8.7 x 2.6; length of 
nasals, 11.2; maxillary toothrow, 3.9. 

Remarks.—P. m. santacruzae is a large subspecies interposed in geographic 
range between the smaller form, P. m. streatori of San Miguel and Santa Rosa 
Islands and the still smaller mainland animal, P. m. gambeli. It differs con- 
spicuously from the latter not only in larger size, but in darker color. The 
smaller ears of specimens from Santa Cruz Island, compared with typical P. 
m. catalinae was pointed out by Osgood (Il. c. p. 98). 

Specimens examined.—T wenty-five, all from Santa Cruz Island. 


Peromyscus maniculatus exterus subsp. nov. 
San Nicolas Island Mouse 


Type.—From San Nicolas Island, off coast. of southern California. No. 
92098, 2 old adult, U. S. National Museum (Biological Survey collection), 
collected by H. A. Gaylord, May 23, 1897. 

Distribution.—Known only from San Nicolas Island. 

General characters.—One of the smaller of the California insular races, very 
similar to Peromyscus maniculatus streatort of San Miguel Island, but ears 
larger; color paler, more cinnamon bufty, less brownish or dusky, especially on 
posterior part of dorsum. Similar to P. m. clementis, but lighter buff, and 
cranial details quite distinctive. Decidedly smaller in general than P. m. 
santacruzae, but with slightly larger ears; color brighter, more buffy, less 
brownish, the lateral line more distinct. Differing from P. m. catalinae in 
lighter, more buffy instead of brownish color, the lateral line more evident; 
skull exhibiting a departure in detail. 


bic. 19, 1931 NELSON AND GOLDMAN: NEW MICE 533 


Color—Type: Upper parts cinnamon buff, purest on cheeks, shoulders, 
lateral line and interfemoral area, the top of head and back moderately over- 
laid with brownish black; under parts white; ears dusky, faintly edged with 
white; outer sides of forearms cinnamon buffy; outer sides of ankles dark 
brownish; tail bicolor, brownish above, white below. 

Skull.—Closely similar to that of P. m. streatorz, but upper outline highest 
near anterior border of frontals (highest near posterior border in streator7); 
braincase slightly larger; interparietal short (antero-posteriorly) as in streator7. 
Compared with that of P. m. clementis the skull is slenderer, with narrower 
and slightly flatter frontal region; nasals narrower; outer wall of antorbital 
foramen narrower, as viewed from the side; interparietal smaller (shorter 
antero-posteriorly). In contrast with P. m. catalinae the braincase is smaller, 
less fully inflated; interorbital region narrower; interparietal smaller (shorter 
antero-posteriorly). Differing from that of P. m. santacruzae mainly in 
smaller size. 

Measurements.— Type: Total length, 183; tail vertebrae, 88; hind foot (dry 
skin), 20. Average of 10 adult topotypes: 177 (171-187); 82 (76-88); 20 
(19.5-21). Skull (type): Greatest length, 25.7; condylobasal length, 23.5; 
zygomatic breadth, 23; interorbital breadth, 4; interparietal, 8.2 x 1.9; length 
of nasals, 10.3; maxillary toothrow, 3.8. 

Remarks.—P. m. exterus inhabits the outermost of the Santa Barbara group 
of islands. Cranial characters indicate closer relationship to P. m. streatori 
of the islands of San Miguel and Santa Rosa to the northwest than to P. m. 
clementis of San Clemente Island, nearly equidistant to the southeast. In 
paler, more buffy coloration, however, it tends toward clementis which in turn 
is paler as compared with P. m. catalinae. The somewhat lighter coloration 
of the mice on these farther off shore islands suggests the presence of some 
differential influence. Many animals from within the fog belt along the 
Pacific coast are well known to exhibit dark colors. Possibly fog is less prev- 
alent on San Nicolas and San Clemente, which are 50 miles or more off shore, 
than on the other islands all of which are considerably nearer the coast. 

Specomens examined.—T wenty-four, all from San Nicolas Island. 


Peromyscus maniculatus elusus subsp. nov. 
Santa Barbara Island! Mouse 


Type.—From Santa Barbara Island, off coast of southern California. 
No. 92049, ~ adult, U. 8S. National Museum (Biological Survey collection), 
collected by H. A. Gaylord, May 16, 1897. X catalogue number 1095. 

Distribution — Known only from Santa Barbara Island. 

General characters—A dull brownish subspecies similar to Peromyscus 
maniculatus clementis but upper parts darker, the general tone brownish 
instead of buffy; skull differing in detail. Approaching P. m. catalinae in 
color, but ears smaller, and cranial characters distinctive. Closely resembling 
P. m. santacruzae; color about the same; size smaller; tail decidedly shorter; 
skull slightly different. Similar to P. m. exterus of San Nicolas Island, but 
darker, duller, more brownish in color; ears slightly smaller; skull diverging in 
minor features. 

Color—Type: Upper parts in general near wood brown, moderately mixed 
with black on top of head and over back; lateral line pinkish buff, but rather 
indistinct; under parts dull white; ears dusky, faintly edged with white; outer 
sides of forearms and hind legs buffy brownish; tail bicolor, brownish black 
above, white below. 


534 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


Skull.—Very similar to that of P. m. clementis, but interparietal smaller 
(shorter antero-posteriorly) ; frontal region slightly flatter, with a less distinct 
longitudinal median groove or trough. Compared with P. m. catalinae the 
braincase is smaller, flatter, less inflated, and the interparietal is smaller. 
Slightly broader and heavier than P. m. streatori or P. m. exterus; rostrum and 
interorbital region broader; parietal with antero-external angle forming a less 
acute point. Differing from P. m santacruzae mainly in smaller size and 
slightly rounded, instead of acutely pointed, antero-external angle of parietal. 

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 166; tail vertebrate, 70; hind foot (dry 
skin), 20. Average of six adult topotypes: 174 (165-190) ; 75 (67-88) ; 20 (20- 
21). Skull (type): Greatest length, 26; condylobasal length, 23.3; zygomatic 
breadth, 12.6; interorbital breadth, 4.3; interparietal, 9.3 x 2; length of nasals, 
10.3; maxillary toothrow, 3.8. 

Remarks.—Specimens from Santa Barbara Island have hitherto been re- 
ferred to P. m. clementis which was originally described from San Clemente 
Island. A difference in color, however, while not striking is quite appreciable, 
especially when the series from the two islands are placed side by side; and the 
slight cranial characters are distinctive. In color P. m. elusus more nearly 
resembles P. m. santacruzae, and the skulls are not widely different, but it 
averages decidedly smaller, and the slightly rounded, instead of acutely 
pointed, antero-external angle of the parietal is quite constant. 

Specimens examined.—Iwenty, all from Santa Barbara Island. 


Peromyscus maniculatus martinensis subsp. nov. 
San Martin Island Mouse 


Type-—From San Martin Island, off west coast of Lower California, 
Mexico. No. 138979, 2 adult, U. 8. National Museum (Biological Survey 
collection), collected by Nelson and Goldman, August 13, 1905. Original 
number 17726. 

Distribution.—Known only from San Martin Island. 

General characters.—A large medium-colored (neither very light nor very 
dark) insular subspecies, distinguished from its near relatives by a combina- 
tion of slight but fairly constant cranial details. Very similar to Peromyscus 
maniculatus geronimensis of San Geronimo Island; size and color about the 
same, but differing especially in the broader, less tapering rostrum and more 
projecting supraoccipital region. Decidedly paler than P. m. dubius, of 
Todos Santos Island, and skull differing in minor features. Paler than P. m. 
gambeli and darker than P. m. coolidgei, and larger, more robust, than either 
of these mainland forms. 

Color—Type: Upper parts cinnamon buff, purest on cheeks, shoulders, and 
distinct lateral line, moderately mixed with black on top of head and over back; 
under parts in general dull white, the basal color plumbeous except on throat 
and lips where the short hairs are white to roots; a small buffy area at base of 
tail; fore limbs whitish; outer sides of hind legs dull buffy, becoming whitish 
on feet; ears brownish dusky, narrowly and inconspicuously edged with 
white; tail brownish above, white below. Some of the topotypes are lighter 
and others darker above than the type. 

Skull.—Very similar in size and general form to that of P. m. geronimensis, 
but frontal region slightly more arched, less flattened anteriorly; rostrum 
usually broader, nasals broader, less tapering anteriorly; supraoccipital with 
a more prominent posteriorly projecting median angle, this portion of the 
cranium extending farther over the foramen magnum beyond the plane of 


pec, 19,1931 NELSON AND GOLDMAN: NEW MICE 530 


the condyles; palatal pits larger. Not very unlike that of P. m. dubius, 
but interparietal smaller; nasals usually narrower. 

Measurements.— Type: Total length, 184; tail vertebrae, 82; hind foot, 23. 
Average of three adult topotypes: 182 (178-185); 81 (75-87); 22.5 (22-23). 
Skull (type): Greatest length, 27; condylobasal length, 26.3; zygomatic 
breadth, 12.8; interorbital breadth, 4.2; interparietal, 9.8 x 2.3; length of na- 
sals, 10.3; maxillary toothrow, 4. 

Remarks.—In size and external appearance P. m. martinensis closely ap- 
proaches P. m. geronimensis 1o which the specimens upon which it is based 
were referred by Osgood (l. c., p. 100). The greater average width of the 
nasals, as compared with typical geronrmensis was pointed out by him, and 
this together with the other differential cranial features mentioned here are 
regarded by us as sufficiently distinctive to warrant a separate name. 

Specimens excamined.—Fifty, all from San Martin Island. 


Peromyscus maniculatus dorsalis subsp. nov. 
Natividad Island Mouse 


Type.—From Natividad Island, off west coast of Lower California, Mexico. 
No. 80857, 2 adult, U. 8S. National Museum (Biological Survey collection), 
collected by A. W. Anthony, August 4, 1896. Original number 96. 

Distribution.—Known only from Natividad Island. 

General characters.—A large subspecies similar to Peromyscus maniculatus 
geronumensis, of San Geronimo Island, but less buffy, the face usually paler and 
the posterior part of back and rump in contrast more heavily overlaid with 
black; minor cranial features distinctive. Differing from P. m. cineritius, 
of San Roque Island, in darker color. 

Color—Type: Head and anterior part of back grayish or light buffy 
brownish in contrast with posterior part of back and rump which is pinkish 
buff heavily overlaid with black; flanks buffy brownish; under parts dull 
white; fore limbs whitish; outer sides of hind legs buffy brownish becoming 
white on feet; ears dusky externally, thinly clothed internally and narrowly 
edged with white; tail bicolor, brownish above, white below. 

Skull.—Size and general form about as in P. m. geronimensis, but nasals 
usually broader, less tapering anteriorly; outer wall of antorbital foramen 
broader, the anterior margin more rounded and projecting (more squarely 
truncate in geronimensis) as viewed from the side. Compared with that of 
P. m. coolidgei of the adjacent mainland the skull is larger, more robust, and 
differs in detail about as from geronimensis. 

Measurements —Type: Total length, 177; tail vertebrae, 73; hind foot (dry 
skin), 22.5. Average of three adult topotypes: 176 (174-183); 79 (75-83); 
23 (22.5-23.5). Skull (type): Greatest length, 26.1; condylobasal length, 
3.3; zygomatic breadth, 23.5; interorbital breadth, 24.2; interparietal, 9.3 x 
2.8; length of nasals, 9.8; maxillary toothrow, 4. 

Remarks.—P. m. dorsalis lacks the richer cinnamon buffy tones of P. m. 
geronimensis. ‘The head and anterior part of the back are paler and grayer 
while the posterior part of the back and rump, suffused with lighter buff, 
becomes rather abruptly more heavily overlaid with black. No specimens of 
P. m. cineritius, of San Roque Island, are at hand for direct comparison, but 
that animal is described as pale grayish drab and apparently quite unlike the 
present form. P. m. dorsalis requires no close comparison with the smaller, 
paler subspecies, P. m. coolidget, of the adjacent mainland. 

Specimens examined.—Twenty-one, all from Natividad Island. 


536 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


ZOOLOGY.—Neotylenchus abulbosus n. g., n. sp. (Tylenchidae, 
Nematoda) the causal agent of a new nematosis of various crop 
plants. G. STEINER, Bureau of Plant Industry. 


During the last two years the nemic plant parasite, Neotylenchus 
abulbosus n. g., n. sp., has been observed in strawberry plants affected 
by so-called ‘‘yellows” or ‘‘xanthosis,” received from Mr. Harold E. 
Thomas of California; in strawberry plants from Wisconsin and from 
Germany ; in potatoes in ships’ stores from England, Holland, Norway, 
and New Brunswick, Canada; and in carrots from England and Sweden. 
The form at first sight resembles T'ylenchus dipsaci, and it is probable 
that it has sometimes been mistaken for it. The present paper gives 
the result of a single experiment, and a summary of observations, and 
morphological and taxonomic data concerning the new genus and 
species. 

In strawberry plants this nema occurs in the bud,—between the 
folded leaves and stems,—and also in the developed stems and leaves, 
and is undoubtedly an endoparasite. In the above mentioned Cali- 
fornia plants, the nemas were extremely numerous in brownish, black- 
ish or yellowish spots of the leaves. We have not yet been able experi- 
mentally to produce such spots, but the single negative experiment is 
not conclusive. 

The Wisconsin strawberry plants, were somewhat dwarfed and 
looked abnormal, without exhibiting very special symptoms; they 
contained this nema only in small numbers. A lot of strawberry plants 
imported from Germany seemed to be 100% infested; they had, how- 
ever been packed close together in transit. ‘The few old leaves present 
exhibited brown spots or decayed parts. Young tender leaves had 
developed, though they were not completely unfolded. Nemas were 
found in their tissues, and in the bud between developing leaves. — 
Some of the leaf stems seemed to be slightly swollen, apparently 
because of the infestation. It is therefore impossible at the present 
time to describe satisfactorily clear-cut symptoms of this nemic disease 
on the strawberry plant. 

The carrots seen exhibited sunken areas, which, however, were filled 
with decay; no green parts have been available for study. The potato 
tubers also were too decayed when received to allow specific symptoms 
to be recognized, though the appearances seem much like those pro- 


1 Received November 20, 1931. 


DEc. 19, 1931 STEINER: NEOTYLENCHUS 


d37 


duced by Tylenchus dipsact. Certain areas were sunken and the tuber 


tissues exhibited a mealy appearance. 


bull PAS 
ssecvenGlll NGS 


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Il 


Fig. 1. A. Sketch of the anterior end; B, of the spear; C, amphid; D, head on end; 
E, anal region of a specimen with caecal extension of the intestine; F, tail end; G, lateral 
wings showing nature of crenation; H, posterior end. All 530 except ‘‘D’’ which is 
1075. The abbreviations are mostly self explanatory; oe gl op, opening of dorsal 
oesophageal gland; cut rds, cuticular rods of the framework in the lip region; ‘gli rngs, 


gliding rings of the spear; sp sw, swellings at base of the spear. 


538 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


It is considered probable that this nema has a wide geographical dis- 
tribution; but it appears at present to be a temperate zone species. 


Neotylenchus n. g. 


Diagnosis. Genus very similar to Tylenchus, but differing in the complete 
absence of a median oseophageal bulb, the oesophagus having a pronounced 
central constriction encircled by the nerve-ring, the anterior portion being 
somewhat spindle-shaped, the posterior one somewhat sugarloaf-shaped. 
Head, seen from in front, divided into eight sectors (instead of six as in 
Tylenchus, Paraphelenchus, Aphelenchus, Pathoaphelenchus, etc.,)—a dorsal, 
a ventral, two lateral and four submedial. Male unknown. ‘Type species: 


Neotylenchus abulbosus n. sp. 


Fig. 1 


Diagnosis. Neotylenchus with the characters of the genus; swellings or 
knots at the base of the spear with short, outward-pointing, curved processes. 

Further notes on the species. ‘The female is very similar to that of T’ylenchus 
dipsact. It is, however, noticeably thicker (compare formula below). The 
cuticle is annulated. The lateral wings are four in number, crenate in har- 
mony with the cuticular annulation and arranged as shown in fig. 1G. 
The head end is not set off, as it isin T’ylenchus dipsaci, and is more obtuse and 
broader; the tail is similar, sharply pointed, the terminus varying somewhat 
(figs. 1F and H). In spite of the presence of eight sectors on the front of the 
head, there seem to be only four submedial papillae. Fig. 1C shows a sketch 
of the profile view of anamphid. The spear is not strong, and is rather short; 
its basal swellings or knots are very characteristic, each having a small, out- 
ward-pointing, curved process for the attachment of protrudor muscles (Fig. 
1B). In the lip region proper the spear is surrounded by short, longitudinal, 
cuticularized rods forming a kind of guiding frame. The species is easiest 
determined by the basal swellings of the spear. Asin the true Tylenchus spe- 
cies, there is a dorsal outlet of the oesophageal glands into the oesophageal 
canal just back of the spear. It seems that the oesophageal cells lie within the 
oesophageal tissus, the posterior portion of the oesophagus being quite swol- 
len. The oesophageal canal seems to be continuous, without any valvulae. 
No cardia was seen. The posterior end of the intestine sometimes forms a 
short blind sac, extending a little behind the anal opening (fig. 1E). The 
excretory pore is just behind the nerve-ring. A long canal leads inward and - 
backward, the renette cell apparently being quite a distance behind the » 
beginning of theintestine. Neotylenchus abulbosus is prodelphic, the ovary 
extending sometimes as far forward as the excretory pore. Neotylenchus 
abulbosus is apparently a syngonic species. 

Measurements: Average of three females that showed very slight variations. 

6 


104 -i9e9.2 18. Bagh, 90.5  0.76mm. 
30. 37 5 37 3.0 


DHE tO. 1931 BARTSCH: A NEW VOLUTID MOLLUSK 539 


MALACOLOGY.—A new volutid marine mollusk, Aurinia schmitti.! 
Paut Bartscu, U.S. National Museum. 


Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, Curator of our Marine Invertebrates, while 
collecting Crustacea in 1930 under the auspices of the Carnegie Insti- 
tution at the Marine Biological Station, Tortugas, Florida, made a 
number of hauls with a 30-foot otter trawl south of Tortugas. In one 
of these hauls in 80 fms. he secured two specimens of an A urinia, which 
differ from any heretofore secured; these are here described. 


Aurinia schmitti, n. sp. 


Bio. 

Shell large, spindle-shaped, exterior covered by an olivaceous periostracum 
which dehisced upon drying. When the periostracum is removed the general 
color of the shell is pinkish chalky with the exception of the nucleus, which is 
pale buff. There are also rows of chestnut-brown spots, which are arranged in 
spiral series. ‘Two of these occur between the summit and the suture of the 
turns. The last whorl shows five of these interrupted bands; the first much 
less developed than the rest, being at some little distance anterior to the sum- 
mit of the whorl; the next and fifth band are of about equal width, while the 
third and fourth are fully twice as wide as the second and fifth. The base of 
the columella is also brown. ‘The front of the shell from the inner columellar 
edge to the left side of the shell and the same area of the proceeding whorl, are 
covered with a soiled, smoky gray, somewhat nacreous callus. Inside of 
outer lip salmon-colored, showing the two heavy interrupted bands, and the 
rest by transmitted light. The nucleus consists of about one turn, which 
forms a smooth mammilated apex. Postnuclear whorls appressed at the sum- 
mit, marked by obsolete, rather broad, irregular, axial ribs, which are absent on 
the first and last turns. They show best on the second and third. The entire 
postnuclear part of the shell is marked by rather strong incremental lines, 
particularly so behind the edge of the outer lip. The spiral sculpture consists 
of numerous fine raised threads, which are of almost equal strength and spac- 
ing on the early whorls, but become less so on the later whorls; on the last they 
are a little stronger on the basal half than on the posterior portion thereof. 
Aperture elongate-oval, strongly channelled anteriorly and feebly so at the 
posterior angle; outer lip thin at the edge, somewhat sigmoid, being protracted 
in the middle, columella with two strong oblique folds. 

Type.—The type, U.S. N. M. No. 382779, has five postnuclear whorls, and 
measures: Height, 115 mm.; greater diameter, 35 mm.; length of aperture, 
78mm. 


The present species resembles Aurinia robusta Dall in the shouldering of 
the last turn at the posterior angle of the aperture, which is even more strongly 
emphasized here. The spotting, too, is obscure as in that species. It also 
resembles it in the callus formation of the front of the last turn. In general 
shape, excepting the posterior angle of the aperture, it resembles Aurznia 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received 
November 10, 1931. 


540 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


dubia Broderip more closely than Aurinia robusta Dall, but it is at once dis- 
tinguishedfrom it by the absence of the polished surface and brilliant spotting. 


Figure 1. Aurinia schmitti Bartsch. 


INDEX TO VOLUME 21 


An * denotes the abstract of a paper before the AcCADEMy or an affiliated society 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


Anthropological Society of Washington. 
Biological Society of Washington. 
Botanical Society of Washington. 
Entomological Society of Washington. 
Geological Society of Washington. 
Philosophical Society of Washington. 


Proceedings: 152, 237, 342. 
Proceedings: 94, 445. 

Proceedings: 100, 128, 153, 372. 
Proceedings: 171. 
Proceedings: 26, 178, 365, 488. 
Proceedings: 42, 54, 86, 168, 276. 


Washington Academy of Sciences: Proceedings: 24, 52, 167, 441, 483. 


AUTHOR INDEX 


Apams, L. H. The cubic compressibility 

of certain substances. 381. | 
The influence of pressure on the 

solubility of sodium chloride in water. 

A new method for the measurement of 

the solubilities of electrolytes under 

pressure. 183. 

*The volume change of rubber under 
pressure. 43. 

AuicaTa, JosePH E. A Microfilaria from 

the blood of a wild rabbit. 298. 

Resistance of rats to superinfections 
with a nematode, Nippostrongylus 
muris, and an apparently similar re- 
sistance of horses to superinfections 

with nematodes. 259. 

Ames, JosePH, S. Certain aspects of 
Henry’s experiments on electromag- 
netic induction. 493. 

ASHBROOK, F.G. *Fur farming in Europe. 
95. 

Atwoop, W. R. *Mid-Tertiary glacial 
deposits in southern France. 28. 
BaILEy, VERNON. *General features of 
the Upper Mississippi River Wild Life 

and Fish Refuge. 445. 

Baker, O. E. *Changes in diet affect 
agriculture. 442. 

Banta, A.M. *What the crustacean tells 
us about evolution. 52. 

Barty, Tom F. W. The spinel structure: 
anexample of variate atom equipoints. 
255. 

Bartscu, Pauu. A new volutid marine 
mollusk, Aurinia schmittt. 529. 


541 


BarTRAM, Epwin B. Additional Costa 
Rican mosses, II. 288. 

Basster, R. 8S. IJndianites, new name for 
the Cambrian crustacean Indiana 
Ulrich and Bassler. 364. 

BEATTIE, R. Kent. *Botanical notes 
from Japan. 374. 

Brett, W. B. *Reestablishment of musk- 
oxenin Alaska. 99. 

Berry, Epwarp W. A_ Bothrodendron 
from Bolivia. 295. 

Berry, WILLARD. Contributions to the 
Paleontology of Peru, V. Nodosaria 
pozoensis W. Berry, n.sp. 41 5. 

Buackman, M. W. A revisional study of 
the genus Gnathotrichus Eichhoff in 

North America. 264. 

A revisional study of the genus 


Pseudopityophthorus Sw. in North 
America. 223. 

Buake, S. F. A new Limonium from 
Martin (12: 


—— Nine new American Asteraceae. 325. 

Borckner, C. *The radiation from metal 
surfaces under low-speed electron 
bombardment. 279. 

Borvsen, F. 8. *Recent developments in 
the hydrographic work of the Coast and 
Geodetic Survey with special refer- 
ence to the survey of Georges Bank. 
59. 

Bow18, Wiutu1aM. *An outline of the or- 
ganization and purpose of the Union, 
and Proceedings of the Section of 
Geodesy. 86. 


542 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


Bowlf£, WILLIAM. Shaping the earth. 
103. 


Bowman, Paut W. *Pollen and peat. 


3vA. 
Brapy, M. K. *The breeding of sala- 
manders. 451. 


BRoMBACHER, W. G. *Temperature co- 
efficient of the modulus of rigidity of 
instrument-diaphragm and spring ma- 
terials. 56. 

Bryant, H. C. *Fancy and fact in nat- 
ural history. 95. 

BucHanan, L. L. Synopsis of Perigaster 
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae). 320. 


Bucuer, W.H. *The mobile belts of the 
earth. 489. 

BuckxincHamM, D. E. *The fish poison 
Derris. 449. 


Burt, CHartes E. A report on some 
amphibians and reptiles from New 
York and New Jersey. 198. 

CaNnFIELD, R. H. *Internal friction in 
metals. 278. 

CuHaPin, Epwarp A. Adoretus luridus 
Blanchard and its near relatives in the 
Philippine Islands. 305. 

—— New species of melolonthine Scara- 
baeidae from the Philippine Islands. 
309. 

CHEVERLANGE, Eig. *Exhibition of 
paintings of fishes of Tahiti. 449. 
Cuitwoop, B. G. Chondronema passali 
(Leidy, 1852) n. g. (Nematoda), with 

notes on its life history. 356. 

— Flagellate spermatozoa in a nema- 
tode (Trilobus longus). 41. 

CuHRISLER, V. L. *The measurement of 
sound absorption. 277. 

CuHrisTiE, J. R. Chondronema passali 
(Leidy, 1852) n. g. (Nematoda), with 
notes on its life history. 356. 

CuarKk, Austin H. *Notes on the behav- 
ior and migration of the milkweed 
butterfly. 171. 

Cocuran, DorisM. A newlizard (Anolis 
pinchott) from Old Providence Island. 
354, 

New Bahaman reptiles. 39. 

Couns, Henry B., Jr. *Archeological 
explorations on St. Lawrence Island, 
Alaska. 237. 


Coox, Harotp 8. The antiquity of man 
as indicated at Frederick, Oklahoma: 
Areply. 161. 

Coox8, C. WytuEr. *Radial calcite con- 
cretions in marine beds in Georgia. 
27. 

—— Seven coastal terraces in the south- 

eastern States. 503. 

Why the Mayan cities of the Petén 

District, Guatemala, were abandoned. 
283. 

Cooper, G. A. Concerning the author- 
ship of the ‘‘Preliminary notice of 
the lamellibranch shells of the upper 
Helderberg, Hamilton, and Chemung 
groups, etc., part 2.’’ 459. 

Cusuman, R. A. Three new Braconidae 
parasitic on bark beetles. 301. 

Dane, C.H. *Uncompahgre Plateau and 
related structural features. 28. 

Davies, F. T. *Aurora australis ob- 
served on the Byrd Antarctic Expedi- 
tion. 280. 

Davis, H. S. *Progress in experimental 
fish culture. 450. 

Davis, Watson. *Recent biological liter- 
ature. 94. 

Day, A. L. *Borehole investigations in 
the geyser basin of Yellowstone Na- 
tional Park. 488. 

DE SirrerR, WituteEM. *The origin of the 
planetary system. 483. 

Diamonp, H. *Radio aids to air naviga- 
tion. 48. 

Ditmars, R. L. *Motion-picture studies 
of reptiles. 447. 

DrREcHSLER, C. A crown-rot of holly- 
hocks caused by Phytophthora mega- 
sperman.sp. 9513. 

DryprEn, A. L. Calvert (Miocene) tilting 
of the Maryland Coastal Plain. 131. 

Dyott, G.M. *Motion pictures of jungle 
life. 96. 

EstTERBROOK,L.M. *The Inter-American 
Conference on Agriculture. 94. 

Ewine, H. E. *The distribution and 
host relationships of ectoparasites, 
with special reference to chiggers. 
177. 

FENNER, C. N. *Borehole investigations 
in the geyser basin of Yellowstone 
National Park. 488. 


. pEc. 19, 1931 


Fisuer, W. S. A new longhorn beetle 
from Costa Rica (Coleoptera: Cer- 
ambycidae). 23. 

Fiemine, J. A. *Proceedings of the sec- 
tion of Electricity and Magnetism. 

90. 

*Terrestrial magnetism. 44. 

Foster,M.D. *The effect of the drought 
upon the quality of the water of the 
the Potomac River. 179. 

Frost, S.W. *Animal life on Barro Colo- 
rado Island. 173. 

GaHAn, A.B. Oncertain hymenopterous 
parasites of stored-grain insects. 213. 

—— Two new hymenopterous parasites 
of Tachypterellus consors Dietz. 37. 

Garner, C. L. *An outline of the ex- 
panded program of geodetic work of 
the Coast and Geodetic Survey. 56. 

Gipson, R. E. The cubic compressiblity 

of certain substances. 381. 

*The volume change of 

under pressure. 48. 

GILLULY, JAMES. *Heavy-mineral assem- 
blages in some plutonic rocks from 
eastern Oregon. 370. 

Girty, Grorce H. New Carboniferous 
invertebrates. 390. 

GisH, O. H. *Atmospheric electricity. 
47. 

GoLpMAN, E.A. Anew agouti from Costa 
Rica. 481. 

—— Anew kinkajou from Mexico. 482. 

New pocket gophers from Arizona 

and Utah. 416. 

—— Six white-footed mice (Peromyscus 
maniculatus group) from islands off 

the Pacific Coast. 530. 

Three new pumas. 209. 

— Two new desert foxes. 249. 

Gotpman, M. I. *Some biologic effects 
of the drought in tributaries of Ches- 


rubber 


apeake Bay. 180. 

GrauaM, H.W. *Biology and chemistry. 
46. 

GRIFFITHS, Davip. *How we make more 
bulbs. 101. 

Griees, R. F. *Five thousand miles for a © 
liverwort. 373. 


Hau, R. E. The influence of pressure on 
the solubility of sodium chloride in 


AUTHOR INDEX 


543 


water. A new method for the meas- 
urement of the solubilities of elec- 
trolytes under pressure. 183. 

HamBLeToN, J. I. *The behavior of the 
honeybee. 965. 

Hanson, Matcom P. *Radio with the 
Byrd Antartic Expedition. 168 

Heck, N.H. *Proceedings of the Section 
of Seismology. 88. 

*Some recent developments in the 
field of seismology. 367. 

HENDERSON-SmITH, J. *Cytological stud- 
ies of mosaic of tobacco. 375. 

Hurt, P. R. *A report on the redeter- 
mination of the constant of gravi- 
tation. 170. 

“The place of reason in nature. 

55. 

Hitcucock, A. S. *A botanical trip to 

South and Hast Africa. 102. 

*Nomenclature at the International 

Botanical Congress. 94. 

*“The sessions on nomenclature. 

153. 

Hitcucock, MarGArET R. The mastodon 
of Thomas Jefferson. 80. 

Horrman, W. A. *A consideration of 
educational, especially biological, 
progress in China, prefaced by some 
general remarks on the country and 
its people. 461. 

Horton, A. H. *The Potomac River and 
the drought of 19380. 178. 

Howe ti, A. H. *Exhibition of paintings 
of Florida birds. 445. 

HupparpD, B. R. *Geologic features of 
Aniakchak and Veniaminof craters, 
Alaska. 29. 

Humpurey, H. B. *Influence of vegeta- 

tion on stream flow during the drought. 

179. 

*Regeneration 

128. 

*The relation of trees and other veg- 

etation to stream flow. 450. 

*The relation of weather to the de- 
velopment of stem rust Puccinia gram- 
anis. 129. 

Huisurt, E. O. *The zodiacal light. 

276. 


——= in some conifers. 


544 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


JOHNSTONE-WaALLACE, D. B. *Competi- 
tion as a factor in the success of grass 
and clover mixtures. 154. 

Jupson, L. V. *New instruments and 
methods in length measurements of 
high precision. 55. 

Kearney, THomas H. 
botanist’s point of view. 154. 

— Plants new to Arizona. (An anno- 
tated list of species added to the 
recorded flora of the State or other- 
wise interesting.) 63. 

Keruuvum, L. B. Revision of the names of 
three fossils from the Castle Hayne and 
Trent marls in North Carolina. 51. 

Krene, Y. L. New grasses from China. 
155. 

—— The genus Chikusichloa of Japan 
and China. 526. 

Kervuutecan, G. H. *Measurement of the 
elastic hysteresis by means of tuning 
forks. 55. 

Kiuiurp, Enusworth P. New plants 
mainly from western South America— 
III. 347. 

— The genus Lozanella. 336. 

Kimpaut, H. H. *Proceedings of the 
Section of Meterology. 88. 

Kine, Purtie B. *Geology of the Mara- 
thon District, Texas. 365. 

LAMBERT, E. B. *Studies on the relation 
of temperature to the growth, parasit- 
ism, thermal death points, and control 
of Mycogene perniciosa. 100. 

LeLacueur, Empert A. Tidal phenom- 
ena in Long Island Sound. 239. 

Lronarp, E. C. The genus Mendoncia 
in Peru. 144. 

LiTTLEHALES, G.W. *Proceedings of the 
Section of Oceanography. 92. 

Lotxa, ALFRED J. Some elementary 
properties of moments-of-frequency 
distributions. 17. 

—— The extinction of families. I. 377, 

—— The extinction of families. II. 453. 

Lovueuiin, G. F. *Geology of Leadville 
and vicinity, areview of old and recent 
studies. 370. 

Lucas, C. R. *Commercial fish farming 
in the United States. 450. 

Lucker, JoHn T. Resistance of rats to 
superinfections with a nematode, 


*Cotton from a 


Nippostrongylus muris, and an appar- 
ently similar resistance of horses to 
superinfections with nematodes. 259. 

Mann, Wm. M. A new ant from Porto 
Rico. 440. 

Marsu, C. Dwicut. On a collection of 
Copepoda made in El Salvador by 
Samuel F. Hildebrand and Fred J. 
Foster of the U. S. Bureau of Fish- 
eries. 207. 

—— The copepod genera Broteas Lovén, 
Paradiaptomus Sars, Lovenula Meth- 
uen, and Adiaptomus Cooper. 397. 

Matuack, M. B. The juice sac of the 
orange with some observations on the 
plastids of citrus. 437. 

MERRIAM, JOHN C. *The unity of nature 
as illustrated by the Grand Canyon. 
441. 

MerriLu, E. D. *Plants and animals of 
the Philippines and neighboring is- 
lands—How they came to be where 
they are. 4438. 

Mouter,F.L. *The radiation from metal 
surfaces under low-speed electron 
bombardment. 279. 

Morton, C. V. The genus Lozanella. 
336. 

— Notes on yagé, a drug plant of 
southeastern Columbia. 485. 

Neuson, E. W. A new kinkajou from 
Mexico. 482. 

— Six new white-footed mice (Peromy- 
scus maniculatus group) from islands 
off the Pacific Coast. 530. 

— Three new pumas. 209. 

Nessit, R. A. *Biological aspects of 
conservation of marine fishery re- 
sources, New York and New Jersey. 
99. 

Nuttine, P. G. Adsorption and base 
exchange. 33. 

Oman, P.W. New Jassinae, with notes on 
other species. 480. 

Pauu, J.H. *Meterology. 46. 

Prarson, T. Giupert. *Adventures in 
bird protection. 446. 

PERRIER, GEORGES. Raoul Gautier. 340. 

Peters, M. F. *An investigation of the 
effectiveness and reliability of electric 
sparks in automotive ignition. 56. 


pEc. 19, 1931 


Prmerce. W. D. 
176. 

Piper, A.M. *Observations in The Dalles 
region, Oregon, bearing on the history 
of the Columbia River. 371. 

Pittier, H. Berberis in Venezuela, new 
species of Ovzalis, Hxogonium, and 
others. 134. 

Posnygak, E. The spinel structure: An 
example of variate atom equipoints. 
255. 

Price, Emmett, W. Metagonimoides ore- 
gonensis, a new trematode from a 
racoon. 405. 

PrytHercH, H. F. *Spawning, setting 
and development of the oyster. 98. 

Ratusun, Mary J. A new species of 
Pinnotherid crab from Costa Rica. 
262. 

New crabs from the Gulf of Mexico. 

125. 

Reep, J.C. *Heavy-mineral assemblages 
in some plutonic rocks from eastern 
Oregon. 370. 

RicHarpson, L. T. The heat of solution 
of some potash minerals. 248. 

Rouwer, S.A. *Remarks on the present 
status of some insect pests which are 
subject to federal quarantine. 172. 

Rooney, W. J. *EHarth-resistivity sur- 
vey at Huancayo, Peru, and relation 
of resistivity to earth-current poten- 
tialrecords. 42. 


*The mango weevils. 


—— 


Ross, C. P. *The physiography of south- 
central Idaho. 369. 
Rusety,.W. W. *The Illinois River, a 


problem in channel equilibrium. 366. 
Scumitt, W. L. *Exhibition of a rare 
isopod. 95. 
Scuuuttz, ApotpH H. *Man’s 
among the primates. 24. 
Scuuttz, E. 8. *Virus diseases of pota- 
toes. 375. 

Scowartz, BrensaAMIN. A Microflaria 
from the blood of a wild rabbit. 298. 

— Resistance of rats to superinfections 
with a nematode, Nippostrongylus 
muris, and an apparently similar 
resistance of horses to superinfections 
with nematodes. 259. 

ScorreLD, C. 8. *The effect of boron on 
citrus in California. 100. 


place 


AUTHOR INDEX 


545 


ScRIVENER, J. W. Notes on Gypona 
octolineata (Say). 222. 

SeecerR, R. J. The quantum theory of 
Born and Wiener. 315. 

SETzLER, Frank M. *The Mound- 
Builder cultures of the Upper Missis- 
sippi Valley. 342. 

SHAMEL, H. Haroutp. Akodon chacoensis, 
a new cricetine rodent from Argen- 


tina. 427. 
—— Bats from the Bahamas. 251. 
SHear, C.L. *The fungus foray. 153. 


Saenon, P. J. *The Flathead Mine, 
Montana, an unusual silver deposit. 
181. 

SmitH, H. M. *Some new and curious 
Siamese fishes. 96. 

Snyper, W. F. *The measurement of 
sound absorption. 277. 

Souuz, F. N. *Oceanography. 46. 

SpeNcER, J. W. *Observations on Col- 
orado elk herds. 95. 

Spunar, Vay. Mar. On Fermat’s Last 
Theorem. 21. 

STEINER, G. Neotylenchus abulbosus n.g., 
n. sp. (Tylenchidae, Nematoda) the 
causal agent of a new nematosis of 
various crop plants. 536. 

— On the status of the nemic genera 
Aphelenchus Bastain, Pathoaphelen- 
chus Cobb, Paraphelenchus Micolet- 
zky, Parasttaphelenchus Fuchs, Ison- 
chus Cobb and Seinura Fuchs. 468. 

Stevens, R. E. Further studies of kolm. 
409. 

STEVENSON, F.J. *Geneticsin relation to 
potato breeding. 375. 

Stites, C. W. *Is international zoologi- 
cal nomenclature practicable? Report 
on Padua Congress. 97. 

SwWALLEN, Jason R. Five new grasses 
from Colombia. 14. 

— Two new grassesfrom Mexico. 486. 

Swanton, JoHN R. The Caddo social 
organization and its possible histori- 


cal significance. 203. 
TarBETT, R. E. *Control over mosquito 
breeding. 449. 


TEICHERT, Curt. Recent German theor- 
ies about structural geology. 1. 

TERHUNE, H.W. *Wild-life protection in 
Alaska. 447. 


546 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


Townsenp, C. H. *A recent expedition 
to the Galapagos Islands and studies 
of the Galapagos tortoises. 448. 

Tuve, M.A. *Artificial radium rays from 
high-voltage tubes. 167. 

Unter, F. M. *Waterfowl and reptile 
life of the Upper Mississippi River 
Wild Life and Fish Refuge. 445. 

Uuricu, E. O. *Highlights of the past 
two seasons’ work. I. Origin and 
stratigraphic horizon of the zine ores 
of the Mascot District of Kast Tennes- 
see. 30. 

—  Indianites, new name for the Cam- 
brian crustacean Indiana Ulrich and 
Bassler. 364. 

Waker, E.H. Four new species of Myr- 
sinaceae from China. 477. 

Waker, W. M. *Archeological recon- 
naissance in the Hawaiian Islands. 
343. 

Warp, Metpourne. *Natural history of 

the Barrier Reef of Australia. 96. 

*Wanderings in North Australia. 

97. 


Watts, C. B. *The transit instrument 
and the synchronous motor. 48. 

Weuts, R. C. Further studies of kolm. 
409. 

—— The heat of solution of some potash 

minerals. 243. 

*Van’t Hoff’s studies of minerals 
deposited from sea water. 372. 
Wenner, F. *Impressions of the excur- 

sions andentertainments, 93. 

WenseEL, H. T. *The Waidner-Burgess 
standard of light and the freezing 
point of platinum. 276. 

Wetmorn, ALEXANDER. *The Interna- 
tional Ornithological Congress. 94 

Wuerry, Epear T. A new spiral-orchid 
from the Southern States. 49. 

— The eastern short-stemmed leather 
flowers. 194. 

Wricut, F. E. *Optical methods for re- 
ducing the effects of photographic- 
plate grain. 279. . 

Zins, E.G. *The geologist and analyst— 
astudy in cooperation. 26. 


Anthropology. 


Biology. 


Botany. 


SUBJECT INDEX 


*Man’s place among the 
primates. ApoupH H. Scuuttz. 24. 

The antiquity of man as indicated at 
Frederick, Oklahoma: a reply. 
Haroup 8. Coox. 161. 

Archeology. *Archeological explorations 
on St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. 
Henry B. Couuins, Jr. 287. 

*Archeological reconnaissance in the 
Hawaiian Islands. W. M. WaLKER. 
343. 

*The Mound-Builder cultures of the 
Upper Mississippi Valley. Frank M. 
SETZLER. 342. 

Why the Mayan cities of the Petén 
District, Guatemala, were abandoned. 
C. WyTHE Cooke. 283. 

Astronomy. *The origin of the planetary 
system. WILLEM DE SITTER. 483. 
*The transit instrument and the syn- 
chronous motor. C. B. Warts. 48. 
Biogeography. *Plants and animals of the 
Philippines and neighboring islands— 
How they came to be where they are. 

BK. D.Mereritu. 443. 

“Biological aspects of conserva- 
tion of marine fishery resources, New 
York and New Jersey. R.A. NESBIT. 
99. 

*Biology and 
GRAHAM. 46. 

*Fancy and fact in natural history. 
H.C. Bryant. 95. 

“Motion pictures of jungle life. 
Dyotr. 96. 

“Natural history of the Barrier Reef of 
Australia. MmLBoURNE Warp. 96. 

*Recent biological literature. Watson 
Davis. 94. 

“Wanderings in North Australia. 
‘MELBOURNE WarD. 97. 

*A botanical trip to South and 

Kast Africa. A. S. Hircucocx. 102. 


547 


chemistry. H. W. 


Ge Mr. 


A crown-rot of hollyhocks caused by 
Phytophthora megasperma n. sp. C. 
DREcCHSLER. 513. 

Additional Costa Rican mosses, II. 
Epwin B. BAarTRAM. 288. 

A new Limonium from Haiti. 
BLAKE. 12. 

A new spiral-orchid from the Southern 
States. Epaar T.WHeERRy. 49. 

Berberis in Venezuela, new species of 
Oxalis, Exogonium, and others. H. 
PiTTiER. 184. 

*Botanical notes from Japan. 
BEATTIE. 374. 

*Competition as a factor in the success 
of grass and clover mixtures. D. B. 
JOHNSTONE-WALLACE. 154. 

*Cotton from a botanist’s point of view. 
Tuomas H. Kearney. 154. 

*Cytological studies of mosaic of 
tobacco. J. HENDERSON-SMITH. 375 

Four new species of Myrsinaceae from 
China. E.H. Waker. 477. 

Five new grasses from Colombia. 
JASON R. SwaLuen. 14. 

*Genetics in relation to potato breeding. 
F.J.STEVENSON. 375. 

*How do we make more bulbs? Davip 
GRIFFITHS. 101. 

New grasses from China. 
155. 

New plants mainly from western South 
America—III. ELLSWORTH Pe 
Kiiurp. 347. 

Nine new American Asteraceae. 
BuaKE. 325. 

*Nomenclature at the International 
Botanical Congress. A. 8S. Hitcu- 
cock. 94. 

Notes on yagé, a drug plant of south- 
eastern Columbia. C. V. Morton. 


Ss. . 


R. Kent 


Y. L. Kena. 


So he 


4&5. 
Plants new to Arizona. THomas H. 
KEARNEY. 68. 


548 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


*Pollen and peat. Paut W. BowMan. 


374. 
*Regeneration in some conifers. H. B. 
HuMPHREY. 128. 


*Reports on the Botanical Congress at 
London. Botanica Society. 153. 
*Studies on the relation of temperature 
to the growth, parasitism, thermal 
death points, and control of Mycogone 


perniciosa. HK. B. Lampert. 100. 
The eastern short-stemmed leather 
flowers. EpGar T. WHERRY. 194. 


*The effect of boron on citrus in Cali- 
fornia. C.S.Scorretp. 100. 

*The fungus foray. C.L.SHar. 153. 

The genus Chikusichloa of Japan and 
China. Y.L.Kene. 526. 

The genus Lozanella. E. P. Kiuurp and 
C.V. Morton. 336. 

The genus Mendoncia in Peru. E. C. 
LEONARD. 144. 

*The Inter-American Conference on 
Agriculture. L. M. EstTERBROOKE. 
94. 

The juice sac of the orange with some 
observations on the plastids of citrus. 
M.B.Matuack. 487. 

*The relation of weather to the develop- 
ment of stem rust Puccinia graminis. 
H.B.Humpurey. 129. 


“The sessions on nomenclature. A. 8. 
Hitcucock. 153. 

Two new grasses from Mexico. JASON 
R.SwWALuen. 486. 

*Virus diseases of potatoes. E. S. 


ScHuLtTz. 375. 

Chemistry. Further studies of kolm. R. 
C. Weis and R. E. Stevens. 409. 

Crystallography. The spinel structure: 
An example of variate atom equi- 
points. Tom F, W. Barts and HE. 
POSNJAK. 255. 

Hconomics. *Changes in diet affect agri- 
culture. O.E. Baker. 442. 

Entomology. Adoretus luridus Blanchard 
and its near relatives in the Philippine 
Islands. Epwarp A. CuHapin. 305. 

A new ant from Porto Rico. Wm. M. 

Mann. 440. 


A new longhorn beetle from Costa 
Rica (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). 
W.S. FisHer. 238. 

A revisional study of the genus Gnatho- 
trichus Eichhoff in North America. 
M.W. BuackMANn. 264. 

A revisional study of the genus Pseudo- 
pityophthorus Sw. in North America. 
M. W. BLACKMAN. 223. 

*Control over mosquito breeding. R. 
E. TarBetrT. 449. 

New Jassinae, with notes on other 
species. P.W.Oman. 480. 

New species of melolonthine Scara- 
baeidae from the Philippine Islands. 
Epwarp A. CHaPiIn. 309. 

Notes on Gypona octolineata (Say). J. 
W.ScRIVENER. 222. 

*Notes on the behavior and migration 
of the milkweed butterfly. AusTIN 
H.Cuarxk. 171. 

On certain hymenopterous parasites of 
stored-grain insects. A. B. Ganan. 
Died, 

*Remarks on the present status of some 
insect pests which are subject to fed- 
eral quarantine. S.A. Ronwer. 172. 


Synopsis of Perigaster (Coleoptera: 
Curculionidae). L. L. BUucHANAN. 
320. 


*The behavior of the honeybee. J. I. 
HAMBLETON. 95. 

*The distribution and host relationships 
of ectoparasites, with special refer- 
ence to chiggers. H.E.Ewine. 177. 

*The mango weevils. W. D. PIERCE. 
176. 

Three new Braconidae parasitic on bark 

beetles. R.A.Cusuman. 301. 

Two new hymenopterous parasites of 
Tachypterellus consors Dietz. A. B. 
GAHAN. 37. 

Ethnology. The Caddo social organiza- 
tion and its possible historical signifi- 
cance. JOHN R. Swanton. 203. 

Evolution. *What the crustacean tells us 
about evolution. A. M. Banta. 52. 

Geodesy. *An outline of the expanded 
program of geodetic work of the Coast 


pc. 19, 1931 


and Geodetic Survey. C.L. GARNER. 
56. 

*An outline of the organization and pur- 
pose of the Union, and Proceedings of 
the Section of Geodesy. WILLIAM 
BowleE. 86. 

Geology. *Borehole investigations in the 
geyser basin of Yellowstone National 
Park. C.N. FENNER and A. L. Day. 
488. 

Calvert (Miocene) tilting of the Mary- 
land Coastal Plain. A. L. DRyYpDEN, 
ras Lod. 

*Geologic features of Aniakchak and 
Veniaminof craters, Alaska. B. R. 
HvUBBARD. 29. 

*Geology of Leadville and vicinity, a 
review of old and recent studies. G. 
F. Loucauin. 370. 

*Geology of the Marathon District, 
Texas. Puitip B. KinGc. 365. 

*Heavy-mineral assemblages in some 
plutonic rocks from eastern Oregon. 
J.C. REED AND JAMES GILLULY. 370. 

*Mid-Tertiary glacial deposits in south- 
ern France. W.R.Atwoop. 28. 

*Origin and stratigraphic horizon of the 
zine ores of the Mascot District of 
East Tennessee. E. O. UutRicH. 30. 

*Radial calcite concretions in marine 
beds in Georgia. C. WytTHE Cooke. 
27. 

Recent German theories about struc- 
tural geology. Curt TEIcHERT. 1. 

Seven coastal terraces in the southeast- 
ern States. C.WytTHECOooKE. 503. 

The antiquity of man as indicated 
at Frederick, Oklahoma: A reply. 
Harotp 8. Coox. 161. 

*The Flathead Mine, Montana, an un- 
usual silver deposit. P. J. SHENON. 


181. 
*The geologist and analyst—a study in 
cooperation. E.G. Zins. 26. 


*The Illinois River, a problem in chan- 
nel equilibrium. W. W. Rusgy. 
366. 

*The mobile belts of the earth. W. H. 
BUCHER. 

*Uncompahgre Plateau and _ related 
structural features. C. H. Dane. 
28. 


SUBJECT INDEX 


549 


Geophysics. *A report on the redetermi- 
nation of the constant of gravitation. 
Po Rabeyis 170: 

*Atmospheric electricity. O.H. Gisu. 
47. 

*Harth-resistivity survey at Huancayo, 
Feru, and relation of resistivity to 
earth-current potential records. W. 
J. Roonry. 42. 

*Impressions of the excursions and en- 
tertainments. F.WENNER. 93. 

*Proceedings of the Section of Electric- 
ity and Magnetism. J. A. FLEMING. 
90. 

*Proceedings of the Section of Meteor- 
ology. H.H.KimBatu. 88. 

*Proceedings of the Section of Oceanog- 
raphy. G. W. LITTLEHALES. 92. 

*Proceedings of the Section of Seismol- 
ogy. N.H.He&cx. 88. 

Shaping the earth. WmILLiIam 
103. 

*Some recent developments in the field 
of seismology. N.H.Hu8cxk. 367. 

*Terrestrial magnetism. J.A. FLEMING. 
44, 

Tidal phenomena in Long Island Sound. 

EmBERT A. LELACHEUR. 239. 

Herpetology. A new lizard (Anolis pin- 
choti) from Old Providence Island. 
Doris M. Cocuran. 354. 

*A recent expedition to the Galapagos 
Islands and studies of the Galapagos 
tortoises. C. H. TowNsEND. 448. 

A report on some amphibians and rep- 
tiles from New York and New Jersey. 
CHARLES E. Burt. 198. 

*Motion-picture studies of reptiles. R. 
L. Dirmars. 447. 

New Bahama reptiles. 
RAN. 39. 

*The breeding of salamanders. 
Brapy. 451. 

*Waterfowl and reptile life of the Upper 
Mississippi River Wild Life and Fish 
Refuge. F.M.Uunupr. 445. 

Hydrology. *Influence of vegetation on 
stream flow during the drought. H. 
B. HumpHrRey. 179. 

*Some biologic effects of the drought in 
tributaries of Chesapeake Bay. M. 
I.Goutpman. 180. 


BowleE. 


Doris M. Cocu- 


M. K. 


550 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, NO. 21 


*The effect of the drought upon the 
quality of the water of the Potomac 
River. M.D. Fostrer. 179. 

*The Potomac River and the drought of 
1930. A.H. Horton. 178. 

*The relation of trees and other vegeta- 
tion to stream flow. H. B. HUMPHREY. 
450. 

Ichthyology. *Commercial fish farming in 
the United States. C.R.Lucas. 450. 

*Hixhibition of paintings of fishes from 
Tahiti. Ein CHEVERLANGER. 449. 

*Progress in experimental fish culture. 
H.S8. Davis. 450. 

*Some new and curious Siamese fishes. 
H.M.Smiru. 96. 

Mammalogy. Akodon chacoensis, a new 
cricetine rodent from Argentina. H. 
HAROLD SHAMEL. 427. 


A new agouti. from Costa Rica. E. A. 
GOLDMAN. 481. 

A new kinkajou from Mexico. E. W. 
Newson and E.A.GouLpMAN. 482. 


Bats from the Bahamas. H. Haroup 
SHAMEL. 251. 

*Fur farming in Europe. 
BROOK. 95. 

New pocket gophers from Arizona and 
Utah. E.A.Goupman. 416. 

*Observations on Colorado elk herds. 
J.W.SpPENCER. 95. 

*Reestablishment of muskoxen in 
Alaska. W.B. Bru. 99. 

Three new pumas. E. W. NELSON and 
E. A. GoLpMAN. 209. 

Two new desert foxes. 
249. 

Six new white-footed mice (Peromyscus 
maniculatus group) from islands off 
the pacific Coast. E. W. Nr.son and 
E. A. GotpMan. 530. 

Mathematics. On Fermat’s Last Theorem 
III. Vau. Mar. Spunar. 21. 

The quantum theory of Born and Wiener. 
R.J.SEncer. 315. 

Meteorology. *Aurora australiso bserved 
on the Byrd Antartic Expedition. 
F. T. Davins. 280. 

*Meteorology. J.H. Pau. 46. 

*The zodiacal light. E. O. HuLsurt. 
276. 


F, G. AsH- 


E. A. GOLDMAN. 


Miscellaneous. *A consideration of edu- 
cational, especially biological, prog- 
ress in China, prefaced by some 
general remarks on the country and its 
people. W.A.Horrman. 451. 

*Five thousand miles for a liverwort. 
R. F.Griaes. 373. } 

*General features of the Upper Missis- 
sippi River Wild Life and Fish Refuge. 
VERNON BartEy. 445. 

*The fish poison Derris. 
INGHAM. 449, 

“The Joseph Henry lectureship. 344. 

*“The place of reason in nature. PAUL 
R. Hey. 55. 

*The unity of nature as illustrated 
by the Grand Canyon. Joun C. 
Merriam. 441. 

*Wild-life protection in Alaska. 
TERHUNE. 447. 

Necrology. ACHESON, EDWARD GOODRICH. 
346. 

AINSLIE, GEORGE Goopine. 48. 

CLARKE, FRANK WIGGLESWORTH. 346. 

FARRINGTON, ARTHURM. 376. 

GAUTIER, RAOUL. 282, 340. 

GIDLEY, JAMES WILLIAMS. 476. 

HopGxins, Howarp Lincoun. 180. 

OakLEy, RUSSELL ARTHUR. 376. 

Paut, Henry Martyn. 182. 

PRITCHARD, FREDERICK J. 48. 

SPILLMAN, WILLIAM JASPER. 346. 

Oceanography. *Oceanography. BIN: 
Soute. 46. 

*Recent developments in the hydrogra- 
phic work of the Coast and Geodetic 
Survey with special reference to the 
survey of Georges Bank. F. S. 
BorpENn. 59. | 

Ornithology. *Adventures in bird protec- 
tion. T.GILBERT PEARSON. 446. 

*Exhibition of paintings of Florida birds 
A.H.Hower.u. 445. 

*The International Ornithological Con- 
gress. ALEXANDER WETMORE. 94. 
*Waterfowl and reptile life of the Upper 

Mississippi River Wild Life and Fish 

Refuge. F.M.Uuurr. 445. 
Paleobotany. A Bothrodendron from Boli- 
EpWARD W. BERRY. 295. 


D. E. Bucx- 


H.W. 


vila. 


DEC. 19, 1931 


Paleontology. Concerning the authorship 
of the Preliminary notice of the lamelli- 
branch shells of the upper Helderberg, 
Hamilton, and Chemung groups, etc., 
part 2. G.A.Cooprmr. 459. 

Nodosaria pozoensis W. Berry, 0. sp. 
WILLARD Berry. 415. 

Indianites, new name for the Cambrian 
crustacean /ndiana Ulrich and Bassler 
E. O. Utricuoand R.S. Basster. 364. 

New Carboniferous invertebrates—III. 
GrorGce H.Girty. 390. 

Revision of the names of three fossils 
from the Castle Hayne and Trent 
marls in North Carolina. L. B. 
Keuuum. 51. 

The mastodon of Thomas Jefferson. 
MareGarer R. Hitcucock. 80. 

Physical chemistry. Adsorption and base 
exchange. P.G.NurtTine. 33. 

The heat of solution of some potash 
minerals. L. T. RicHAaRDSON and 
R.C. WEeEtts. 2438. 

The influence of pressure on the solubil- 
ity of sodium chloride in water. A 
new method for the measurement of 
the solubilities of electrolytes under 
pressure. L. H. Apams and R. E. 
Hauy. 183. 

*Van’t Hoff’s studies of minerals de- 
posited from sea water. R.C.WELLs. 
372. 

Physiography. *Observations in The 
Dalles region, Oregon, bearing on the 
history of the Columbia River. A. 
M.Prrrer. 371. 

*The physiography of south-central 
Idaho. C.P.Ross. 369. 

Why the Mayan cities of the Petén 
District, Guatemala, were abandoned. 
C. WYTHE CooKE. 283. 

Physics. *Atmosphericelectricity. O.H 
GisH. 47. 

*An investigation of the effectiveness 
and reliability of electric sparks in 
automotive ignition. M. F. Prrsrs. 
56. 

*Artificial radium rays from _high- 
voltage tubes. M.A. Tuve. 167. 

Certain aspects of Henry’s experiments 
on electromagnetic induction. Jos- 
EPH S.AmES. 493. 


SUBJECT INDEX 


551 


*Internal friction in metals. R. H. 
CANFIELD. 278. 

*Measurement of the elastic hysteresis 
by means of tuning forks. G. H. 
KEULEGAN. 55. 

*New instruments and methods in 
length measurements of high precision 
L. V. Jupson. 55. 

*Optical methods for reducing the ef- 
fects of photographic-plate grain. 
F. E. Wricut. 279. 

*Radio aids to air navigation. 
MOND. 48. 

*Radio with the Byrd Antarctic Expedi- 
tion. Matcotm P. Hansom. 168. 

*Temperature coefficient of the modulus 
of rigidity of instrument-diaphragm 
and spring materials. W. G. Brom- 
BACHER. 56. 

The cubic compressibility of certain 
substances. L. H. Apams and R. E. 
GIBSON. 381. 

*The measurement of sound absorption. 
V. L. Curisuter and W. F. Snypmr. 
ariel 

The quantum theory of Born and Wiener. 
R. J. SEEGER. 315. 

*The radiation from metal surfaces 
under low-speed electron bombard- 
ment. F.L. MouHuEr and C. BorcxK- 
NER. 279. 

*The volume change of rubber under 
pressure. R. E. Gipson and L. H. 
ApaAms. 48. 

*The Waidner-Burgess standard of light 
and the freezing point of platinum. 
H. T. WENSEL. 276. 

Population analysis. The extinction of 


ED rA— 


families, I. Atrrep J. LorKa. 
Sale 
The extinction of families. II. 453. 
Scientific notes and news. 32, 47, 61, 154, 


182, 206, 237, 253, 314, 344, 375, 407, 
451, 475, 491. 

Statistics. Some elementary properties of 
moments-of-frequency distributions. 
AS J Oma Ui: 


Zoology. A Microfilaria from the blood of 


a wild rabbit. BENJAMIN SCHWARTZ 
and JosepH E. AuicaTa. 298. 

A new marine mollusk, Aurinia schmitit. 
PauL BarRtTscH. 529. 


552 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 21, No. 21 


A new species of Pinnotherid crab from 
Costa Rica. Mary J. RatTHBun. 
262. 

Animal life on Barro Colorado Island. 
S.W.Frost. 173. 

Chondronema passali (Leidy, 1852) n. g. 
(Nematoda), with notes on its life 
history. J. R. Curistie and B. G. 
CuHItwoop. 356. 

Copepoda from El 
Dwicut MarsxH. 207. 

*Exhibition of a rare isopod. W. L. 
Scumitt. 95. 

Flagellate spermatozoa in a nematode 
(Trilobus longus). B. G. Currwoop. 
Al. 

*Is international zoological nomen- 
clature practicable? Report on 
Padua Congress. C. W. Stites. 97. 

Metagonimoides oregonensis, a new trem- 
atode from a raccoon. EMMETT W. 
Pricge. 405. 

Neotylenchus albulbosus n. g., nN. sp. 
(Tylenchidae, Nematoda) the causal 


Salvador. C. 


agent of a new nematosis of various 
crop plants. G. STEINER. 536. 

New crabs from the Gulf of Mexico. 
Mary J. Ratupun. 125. 

On the status of the nemic genera 
Aphelenchus Bastain, Pathoaphelen- 
chus Cobb, Paraphelenchus Micoletzky 
Parasitaphelenchus Fuchs, Isonchus 
Cobb and  Seinura Fuchs. G. 
STEINER. 468. 

Resistance of rats to superinfections 
with a nematode, Nippostrongylus 
muris, and an apparently similar 
resistance of horses to superinfec- 
tions with nematodes. BENJAMIN 
ScuowarTz, JospepH HE. AuicaTa, and 
Joun T. Lucker. 259. 

*Spawning, setting and development of 
the oyster. H.F. PrytTHEercu. 98. 

The copepod genera Broteas Lovén, 
Paradiaptomus Sars, Lovenula Schmeil, 
Metadiaptomus Methuen, and Adiap- 
tomus Cooper. C. Dwiagut Marsu. 
397. 


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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY 


President: N. A. Coss, Bureau of Plant Industry. 

Corresponding Secretary: Paunt E. Hows, Bureau of Animal Industry. 
Recording Secretary: CHarLes THom, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. 
Treasurer: Hunry G. Avurs, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 


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